Isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers in pangolins (Mammalia,Pholidota, Manis spp.)

Thirty‐four polymorphic dinucleotide microsatellite loci were developed in the Malayan pangolin Manis javanica. Of the 34 markers, 32 and 18 were also amplified, respectively, in the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and the African tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis). Analysis of 24 Malayan, 12 Chinese and 2 African tree pangolins showed high levels of variability (heterozygosity ranging from 0.321 to 0.708). These are the first available microsatellite markers in Pholidota and will be an invaluable tool for evolutionary and conservation genetic studies in pangolins.     

The addition of soil and chitin into Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) diets affect digestibility,faecal scoring,mean retention time and body weight

Pangolins (Manis spp.) are myrmecophagous mammals with a wild diet of termites and ants. Diets are not yet readily acceptable by all pangolins and lack soil and chitin compared to their wild diet. This study aimed to assess the usefulness of including soil and chitin in pangolin diets by measuring changes in digestibility, food mean retention time, faecal scoring and body weight changes. Two male and two female Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) from Night Safari (Singapore) were fed their typical gruel-type diets, with soil and chitin added in various amounts throughout 10 different treatments. Diet intake was calculated daily and faecal boluses were collected for digestibility analysis. Chromium oxide was added to the diet to measure mean retention time four times per animal per treatment. Faecal consistency scores were recorded daily where 1 is firm and 5 is liquid. Every animal was weighed weekly. Adding soil or chitin to the diet had various effects on the apparent digestibility of organic matter, crude protein and fiber with little effects on crude fat or calcium. Soil had a general positive influence on organic matter and fiber digestion. The addition of chitin and soil together had the stronger effects. Only at 25% inclusion of soil did the faecal score begin to improve. The overall maintenance energy requirements for adult M. javanica was 79.28 Kcal/kg BW^0.75/day, similar to other myrmecophagous mammals. The usage of soil and chitin in pangolin diets may be helpful in controlling weights while preventing behaviours associated with hunger.     

The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis

The present study was undertaken in order to effect a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the order Pholidota, examining seven of the eight currently recognized extant species (absent is Manis culionensis, formerly recognized as a subspecies of Manis javanica) and nearly all the well-known fossil taxa, and employing a wide range of osteological characters from the entire skeleton. In addition, the relationship of pangolins to several putative early Tertiary relatives, including palaeanodonts and the enigmatic “edentate” Eurotamandua joresi, were investigated. The goal of the study was to improve understanding of the systematics and the biogeographic and evolutionary history of the pangolins. A computer-based cladistic analysis of phylogenetic relationships among seven extant species of pangolins, five extinct pangolin species (including all but one of the well-preserved taxa), as well as Eurotamandua and two genera of metacheiromyid palaeanodonts, Palaeanodon and Metacheiromys, was performed based upon 395 osteological characteristics of the skull and postcranial skeleton. Characters were polarized via comparison to the following successive outgroups: the basal feliform carnivoran Nandinia binotata and the hedgehog Erinaceus sp., a eulipotyphlan laursiatherian placental. A revised classification is presented based on the results of the analysis. The results support the monophyly of Pholidota and Palaeanodonta by providing new anatomical characters that can serve to diagnose a pangolin/palaeanodont clade, termed here Pholidotamorpha. Pholidota is defined so as to include all living and fossil pangolins, including all three taxa of middle Eocene “edentates” from the Messel fauna of Germany, among them Eurotamandua joresi. The results do not support the monophyly of the remaining two Messel “edentates” originally placed in the same genus Eomanis, which is restricted to the type species Eomanis waldi. Euromanis, new genus, is named with Eomanis krebsi Storch and Martin, 1994, as the type species, to form a new combination Euromanis krebsi (Storch and Martin, 1994). The analysis strongly supports the monophyly of a crown clade of pangolins diagnosed by many anatomical synapomorphies, the family Manidae. This crown clade is sister to the family Patriomanidae, which includes two Tertiary taxa, Patriomanis americana and Cryptomanis gobiensis, within the superfamily Manoidea. The relationship of the Tertiary European pangolin Necromanis to these two families is unresolved. Within Manidae, the extant species are divided into three well-supported, monophyletic genera, Manis for the Asian pangolins, Smutsia for the African ground pangolins, and Phataginus for the African tree pangolins. The latter two form a monophyletic African assemblage, the subfamily Smutsiinae. The biogeographic implications of this phylogeny are examined. A European origin for Pholidota is strongly indicated. The fossil record of pangolins would seem to support a European origin for the modern forms, with subsequent dispersal into sub-Saharan African and then to southern Asia, and the phylogeny produced in this analysis is consistent with such a scenario.     

The Entotympanic of Pangolins and the Phylogeny of the Pholidota (Mammalia)

Entotympanics are independent elements present in the auditory bullae of various eutherians. An entotympanic has been reported for extant pangolins of the Order Pholidota, but the actual distribution of this element remains uncertain, in part, because it is a small, loosely attached structure that is often lost in macerated skulls. Consequently, it is unknown whether or not the entotympanic characterizes Pholidota primitively or has evolved within the group. This report addresses the morphology and distribution of the entotympanic among living and extinct pholidotans. An entotympanic occurs in the African pangolins Manis gigantea, M. temminckii, and in one specimen of M. tricuspis. In each, it is a small, nodular bone that occupies a distinct fossa primarily on the basioccipital, the presence of which allows us to assess the occurrence of an entotympanic even in specimens in which the bone has fallen out. Both the entotympanic and the basioccipital facet are lacking in the four remaining extant pangolin species and in the late Eocene pangolin Patriomanis. To assess the significance of this entotympanic distribution, a phylogenetic analysis of extant pangolins plus Patriomanis based on 67 cranial characters was performed. Four different outgroup analyses all resulted in the same single most parsimonious tree, in which the three extant Asian pangolins form a monophyletic clade and the four extant African pangolins fall into a paraphyletic assemblage. Optimization of the entotympanic distribution onto this tree results in two patterns, dependent on the outgroup choice. If Patriomanis is the sole outgroup to the extant pangolins, the entotympanic arises within pangolins as a synapomorphy of Manis gigantea and M. temminckii, convergently acquired in some M. tricuspis. If Xenarthra and Palaeanodonta are employed as outgroups, the entotympanic optimization is ambiguous: the pattern is either as above or the entotympanic is present primitively within Pholidota and lost secondarily in Patriomanis and a clade comprising M. tricuspis, M. tetradactyla, and the Asian forms.     

Consumption of nematodes by fungivorous mites,Tyrophagus spp. (Acarina: Astigmata: Acaridae)

Summary Free-living nematodes may be attacked and eaten by soil mites which are normally considered fungivores or saprophages. Three species in the genus Tyrophagus, common inhabitants of grassland soils and also common pests in stored products, museums and laboratories, are predators of nematodes. All active stages of the mites will voraciously consume nematodes. When offered nematodes and a choice of other food (baker's yeast and algae), 11% of the Tyrophagus putrescentiae, 23% of the T. zachvatkini, and 56% of the T. similis tested fed on nematodes. Tyrophagus zechvatkini and similis were reared on a diet consisting entirely of nematodes, and developed at rates similar to a fungal diet and produced viable offspring. Agar cultures of Aphelenchus avenae which were inoculated with five mating pairs of Tyrophagus zachvatkini had populations that were one-third less than mite-free controls. Observations indicate that nematodes may be attacked by tyrophagid mites when in a dry, anhydrobiotic state.     

Hematological parameters of four Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla)

Hematological, differential, and blood chemistry values were determined in four Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla), both at the time of their arrival and after more than 1 year in captivity. The data presented were derived from two samples obtained from each of four animals, and they provide a preliminary basis for comparison with clinical blood values from this and other pangolin species. No peculiar features were identified that distinguish this species from other mammals.     

The food and feeding habits of five freshwater and brackish-water fish species in Nigeria

The food and feeding habits of five economically important fresh-and brackish-water fishes, Channa obscura, Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, Heterotis niloticus, Synodontis nigrita and Trachinotus maxillosus, were investigated. A number of techniques were used to carry out gut content analysis, including the Hynes 'point' system based on volume estimations expressed as relative percentages. Juveniles of C. nigrodigitatus were omnivorous, consuming 32% gastropods, 30% nematodes, 14% diatoms and 8% crustaceans, while adults were planktotrophic, consuming 23% diatoms, 33% Chlorophyceae and 22% crustaceans. Synodontis nigrita juveniles fed almost exclusively (91%) on nematodes, while adults were predominantly planktotrophic, their diet comprising 50% diatoms and 50% crustaceans. Trachinotus maxillosus was exclusively benthotrophic, consuming 99.5% gastropods and 0.46% nematodes. Heterotis niloticus was planktotrophic at the adult stage and consumed 72% crustaceans, 12% gastropods, 3% fish and about 90% planktotrophic at the juvenile phase. Chrysichthys obscura was purely benthotrophic at the juvenile stage, feeding 100% on nematodes, but fed mainly (89%) on fish at the adult stage.     

Composition of Bacterial Communities Associated with a Plant–Parasitic Nematode <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bursaphelenchus mucronatus</Emphasis>

Bursaphelenchus mucronatus is a plant–parasitic nematode widely existing in Eurasian pine forests. To analyze the diversity and role of bacteria associated with the nematode, culture-dependent and culture-independent methods were used to identify and characterize the composition of bacterial community. A total of 13 bacterial isolates were obtained from B. mucronatus by the culture-dependent method. Sixty-four species of bacteria were identified from two 16S rDNA clone libraries constructed from the nematodes of a Chinese and a Japanese population. These bacteria were clustered into four groups: Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. Comparison of the two libraries showed that the Chinese library had a higher diversity than that of the Japanese library, and the dominant group and species in each library were also different. In the Japanese library, Alphaproteobacteria group was obviously dominant (60.3%), and Rhizobium sp. was the most dominant species. Whereas in the Chinese library the proportion of each group was similar (from 19.4 to 23.6%), and Pedobacter sp. was a slightly dominant species. Moreover, 18 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were obtained from each of the two libraries according to a 97% sequence similarity. Metabolic analysis showed that 61.5 and 38.5% of the bacterial isolates could have protease and lipase activities, respectively. But only one had cellulase activity. Testing of reproductive parameter showed that the wild-type nematodes (bacteria carried) could produce more progeny than the bacterium-free nematodes did. So, we speculated that bacteria could promote the propagation and development of the nematode B. mucronatus.     

The transmission of strawberry latent ringspot virus by Xiphinema diversicaudatutn (Nematoda)

Strawberry latent ringspot virus (SLRV) was found in diseased rose bushes growing in a glasshouse where the soil contained Xiphinema diversicaudatum (Micol). Adult female, adult male and juvenile X. diversicaudatum all transmitted the virus to cucumber seedlings, and nematodes kept without plants for 32 days after acquiring SLRV later transmitted it. When transferred to fresh plants every 2–4 days for 3 weeks, single nematodes transmitted up to three times; one nematode did not transmit until 19 days after the transfers began. One adult X. diversicaudatum, out of 141 tested, transmitted both SLRV and arabis mosaic virus. In all respects X. diversicaudatum behaved as a vector of SLRV as it does as a vector of arabis mosaic virus.     

Predator–prey interactions between Dugesia gonocephala and free-living nematodes

1. Three groups of laboratory experiments clarified the role of nematodes as a potential food resource for the triclad Dugesia gonocephala. The first group measured the functional response of adult D. gonocephala feeding on juvenile or adult Caenorhabditis elegans. The feeding rates of D. gonocephala on adult and juvenile C. elegans followed a type II functional response. The maximum number of adult nematodes and juvenile nematodes eaten by a single D. gonocephala individual within 3 h was 94 and 197 nematodes, respectively. 2. A second group of microcosm experiments investigated the effect of D. gonocephala on the density and the vertical distribution of a nematode community in fine sand. The following treatments were performed: (i) microcosms with 400 nematodes and (ii) microcosms with 400 nematodes and one D. gonocephala. After 5 days, nematodes as a group, as well as the dominant species Tobrilus pellucidus and Trischistoma monohystera, showed no significant difference in vertical patterns between the treatments with and without D. gonocephala. 3. The third group of experiments determined whether grain size of the sediment (sand, fine gravel and coarse gravel) altered the ability of D. gonocephala to consume adult C. elegans. Sand and fine gravel reduced the predation effectiveness of D. gonocephala by 100%, whereas the predator consumed nematodes in coarse gravel (19 nematodes within 3 h).     

Monitoring the gestation period of rescued Formosan pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) with progesterone radioimmunoassay

Eight species of pangolin have been identified in the world. However, understanding of pangolin reproductive biology has been limited to fragmentary records. In this study, the concentration of serum progesterone in three pregnant and two nonpregnant rescued female Formosan pangolins (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) was monitored using a commercial progesterone radioimmunoassay kit. During gestation, the serum progesterone of pregnant pangolins A, B, and C remained at 28.5–55 ng/ml (n = 31 samples), 10.9–50.1 ng/ml (n = 34), and 12.4 and 33.5 ng/ml with a peak at 47.6 ng/ml (n = 19), respectively, whereas the serum progesterone of nonpregnant pangolins D and E remained at 1.99 ± 1.62 ng/ml (n = 80) and 2.27 ± 1.64 ng/ml (n = 27), respectively. From this study, it was found that female pangolin weighing as low as 2.14 kg was already capable of reproduction. For pregnant pangolins to give birth to viable offspring, their body weight must increase significantly, 63.89 and 134.0% in the study, from the time of inception or early pregnancy until parturition. In addition, study has found that both viable offspring were born fully developed and exceeded 80 g in weight. The period of gestation was found to be as short as 318 or longer than 372 days. Therefore, the Formosan pangolin should only be able to reproduce once a year. This study is the first insight into hormone assay for determining the gestation period of pangolin. Further investigations on the same subject are necessary to establish criteria for the recognition of reproductive status in pangolins. Zoo Biol 31:479–489, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

围封对天山高寒草原4种植物叶片和土壤化学计量学特征的影响

以中国科学院巴音布鲁克草原生态系统研究站长期围栏内外的羊茅(Festuca ovina)、天山赖草(Leymus tiansecalinus)、二裂委陵菜(Potentilla bifurca)和鹅绒委陵菜(Potentilla anserine)4种植物叶片和土壤为研究对象,分析了放牧与围封对植物叶片和土壤C、N、P的化学计量特征的影响。结果表明,围封样地土壤养分浓度整体高于放牧样地(P0.05),全氮(TN)浓度除外。围封显著增加羊茅叶片C、N浓度(P0.05),对P浓度影响不显著;围封显著增加鹅绒委陵菜叶片的C浓度,但是显著降低叶片的N和P浓度(P0.05),围封对天山赖草和二裂委陵菜养分含量影响不显著。围封显著增加鹅绒委陵菜C∶N和C∶P(P0.05);围封显著降低羊茅C∶N、C∶P和增加N∶P(P0.05);围封显著降低二裂委陵菜C∶N(P0.05),对天山赖草的化学计量特征影响不显著。不同植物对围封的响应不同,意味着长期围封可能会改变天山高寒草原生态系统的结构。围封降低优势种(羊茅)的固碳能力,增加退化期出现的代表性植物(鹅绒委陵菜)的固碳能力,表明在长期围封下植物凋落物中的杂类草(鹅绒委陵菜)可能更多的为土壤提供碳来源,也能促进优势禾本科物种的氮含量和碳含量的增加。     

Reproductive behavior of the captive Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822)

Understanding reproductive behavior is important for the conservation of endangered species, but research on the reproductive behavior of Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822) is still very scarce. In this study, we used focal animal sampling and all-occurrence recording by an infrared monitor to observe the behaviors of two Sunda pangolins during a 5-day breeding period at the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB-SCNU). The behavioral characteristics and breeding strategies were analyzed, and the results were discussed together with information on other captive Sunda pangolin pairs at PRB-SCNU. The results found that there was no obvious estrus behavior in the captive female, while the male could exhibit sexual excitement and courtship behavior after a brief introduction period. Repeated copulation continued over many days after the female accepted the courtship. The average duration of copulatory behavior was 248.9 ± 148.7 s (n = 25), and all copulation occurred between 20:00 and 08:00 hr in the natural day–night photoperiod. The mating position of Sunda pangolins was lateral–ventral and was classified as the ninth or eleventh pattern under both Dewsbury's and Dixson's classification systems. This study can provide scientific guidance for the captive breeding and management of Sunda pangolins and other pangolin species, which is of great significance for ex situ conservation tactics.     

Pathogenicity and repulsion for toxin‐producing bacteria of dominant bacteria on the surface of American pine wood nematodes

Bacteria were isolated from the surface of two samples of American pine wood nematodes to identify methods of controlling pine wilt disease. The dominant bacterial strains were identified, and their toxicity and pathogenicity, in addition to their competitiveness with other pathogenic bacteria, were measured to ascertain how bacteria on the surface of American pine wood nematodes might be used to prevent and control pine wilt disease. The bacterial isolates show that the dominant bacteria carried by the two samples of pine wood nematodes are US4, US5, Smal‐007 and Rrad‐006. Based on routine staining, morphological observation and 16S rDNA sequence analysis, the four strains were identified as Delftia lacustris, Pseudomonas putida, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Rhizobium nepotum. The incubation of four dominant bacterial strains and Chinese dominant bacterial strains on the surface of aseptic nematodes and in nutrient broth showed that Smal‐007 and Rrad‐006 have strong competitiveness on the surface of pine wood nematodes. Using a bacterial culture medium to measure the propensity of pine seedlings to wilt, all the American dominant bacterial strains were shown to be less toxic than the Chinese dominant strains. If pine seedlings are inoculated with both bacterial and aseptic pine wood nematodes, American dominant bacterial strains present less pathogenicity than the Chinese dominant bacterial strains. In particular, Smal‐007 and Rrad‐006 show the lowest pathogenicity. If pine seedlings are inoculated with both bacterial and wild pine wood nematodes, American dominant bacterial strains significantly reduce the pathogenicity of wild pine wood nematodes isolated from Zhejiang Province, China. The effects of Smal‐007 and Rrad‐006 are confirmed as the most prominent. The American dominant strains Smal‐007 and Rrad‐006 satisfy two main requirements: excellent repulsion performance and low pathogenicity. Therefore, they can be used as candidate strains for biocontrol bacteria.     

Genetic diversity in the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla): Inferred from restriction enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNAs

Two different forms of Chinese pangolins can be recognized according to the color of their scales, i.e., brown and dusky. We analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) purified from the livers of seven dusky and six brown Chinese pangolins from the same locality, using cleavage patterns from 19 restriction enzymes. From the 19 6-bp recognition enzymes used, 51–56 sites were observed. By combining the cleavage patterns for each enzyme, the 13 samples were classified into four restriction types: two in dusky and two in brown Chinese pangolins. The estimated number of nucleotide substitutions per site in dusky and brown types is 0.002, and that between dusky and brown types is 0.012. Divergence between brown and dusky forms began 0.6 Myr ago, provided the mean rate of sequence divergence is 0.02 per Myr in mtDNA. Our results suggest that there is considerable divergence in Chinese pangolins, and brown and dusky Chinese pangolins may be quite different forms or, at least, belong to different maternal groups.     

Twenty-four-hour variations in activity,core temperature,metabolic rate,and respiratory quotient in captive chinese pangolins

The circadian rhythms in activity, core temperature (T_c), O₂ consumption, CO₂ production, and respiratory quotient (RQ) were monitored in four captive Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla). The pangolins were strictly nocturnal, never emerging from their nest before 1600 h, and their intermittent activity continued no later than 0230. As is usual in nocturnal mammals, the highest values observed in T_c, O₂ consumption, and CO₂ production occurred during the night; the lowest values occurred during the day. The magnitude of the variation in T_c, O₂ consumption, CO₂ production, and RQ averaged 1.2°C, 1.3 ml O₂ kg^?1 min^?1, 1.2 ml CO₂ kg^?1 min^?1, and 0.24, respectively. The circadian pattern in RQ was independent of activity, T_c, and the metabolic parameters and was of a different character than the patterns exhibited in the other variables. RQ remained constant at either a high or low level for long periods (8–10 h) and then increased or decreased relatively rapidly (1–2h) to the other level as in a square wave, whereas the rhythms in the other variables are similar to sine waves. The sharp increase in RQ was followed by a slow decline in T_c, and the sharp decline in RQ was followed by a slow increase in T_c.     

Decomposition of cellulose strips in relation to climate,litterfall nitrogen,phosphorus and C/N ratio in natural boreal forests

Isolates of Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium sp., Rhizoctonia solani, Stemphylium sp., Thielaviopsis basicola, and Verticillium dahliae were cultured on potato–dextrose agar (PDA), barley-sand and alfalfa-sand substrates in petri-dish or in column microcosms. N-mineralization by fungi and fungal-feeding nematodes in combination or fungi alone was assessed. Numbers of Aphelenchus avenae or Aphelenchoides composticola supported by the fungi were measured every 7 days. Times for full colonization of the substrates by fungi ranged from 5 to 15 days. Rhizoctonia solani and B. cinerea on PDA supported the largest A. avenae and A. composticola populations, respectively. Penicillium sp. was a nonhost for A. composticola and A. avenae. Rhizoctonia solani, B. cinerea, V. dahliae, and F. oxysporum supported significantly more nematodes than the other four fungal species. The ranked order of fungi based on the amount of N mineralized in columns free of nematodes was A. alternata (with a rate of 0.052 μg N/g-sand per day), Stemphylium sp., V. dahliae, T. basicola, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, R. solani, and Penicillium sp. (with a rate of 0.0045 μg N/g-sand perday). The presence of A. avenae resulted in significant increases in mineral N, compared to nematode-free columns colonized by F. oxysporum, R. solani, and T. basicola alone. The presence of A. composticola resulted in significant increases in mineral N, compared to nematode-free columns colonized by A. alternata, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, and R. solani alone. There was more mineral N incolumns in the presence of A. composticola than A. avenae in most cases. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Home range size and distribution in a wild population of Cape pangolins, Manis temminckii, in north‐west Zimbabwe

The aim of this study was to estimate the size of the home range used by individual Cape pangolins ( Manis temminckii ). The study was conducted in 1991–95 at Sengwa Wildlife Research Institute, Gokwe, Zimbabwe. Radio‐telemetry was used to repeatedly locate study pangolins. Home range area was estimated from the location of the burrows used by each pangolin. It was established that pangolins must be tracked for 85+ days to generate a reliable estimate of home range. The size of home ranges, determined from 1141 tracking days of data for 10 pangolins (3·0–15·8 kg body mass) that were each tracked for at least 85 days, was from 0·17 to 11·07 km². Larger (older) pangolins used more burrows and had larger home ranges than smaller (younger) pangolins. The data indicate that large adult males had larger home ranges than large adult females. Within each sex, the home ranges were adjacent to each other with only slight overlap at the boundaries. There was clear overlap of home ranges between males and females.     

A survey of helminth infection in Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) in relation to their foraging behaviour in a Mediterranean environment in southwest Portugal

This study provides the first data on the helminth fauna of the Eurasian badger in the southwestern edge of its range (Grândola Mountain, Portugal) and interprets the results in relation to badger diet and feeding behaviour. By examination of 163 badger faecal samples, faecal developmental stages (eliminative forms) of four helminth species and one genus were identified: one cestode (Atriotaenia incisa) and four nematodes (Mastophorus muris, Molineus patens, Uncinaria criniformis and Strongyloides sp.). The overall prevalence of parasites was 62%, with limited seasonal variation. Single parasite excretions were dominant and Strongyloides sp. excretion was the most common. Diet assessment based on 450 faecal samples revealed that badgers consumed mainly insects and fruits. No correlation was detected between helminth prevalence and diet. Apparently, diet (mainly insects) and feeding behaviour (fossorial), together with the species’ social behaviour (anal scent marking of group members), facilitate the infection with helminths. The helminth fauna of Eurasian badgers in Grândola Mountain has isolationist characteristics, apparently indicating low host colonisation.     

Suitability of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, as prey for ladybeetles

Given the apparent importance ofladybeetles as biological control agents of theinvasive Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorinacitri Kuwayama (Homoptera: Psyllidae), aseries of experiments were undertaken to assessthe nutritional suitability of this pest as aprey item. Five species of Coccinellidae wereshown to develop successfully on a diet ofpsyllid nymphs and four species produced viableeggs. Eggs of the flour moth, Ephestiakuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)were used as a reference diet. Larvae of Curinus coeruleus Mulsant, Cyclonedasanguinea L., Exochomus childreniMulsant, Harmonia axyridis Pallas, andOlla v-nigrum Mulsant all had survival ona diet of D. citri nymphs not differentfrom 100%, although developmental times wereextended and adult dry weights were reducedrelative to the Ephestia egg diet. Species were ranked (highest to lowest) forlarval performance on the D. citri dietrelative to the Ephestia egg diet as:E. childreni, 0.85;O. v-nigrum,0.82; C. coeruleus, 0.80;H.axyridis, 0.71;C. sanguinea, 0.48. Most females of C. sanguinea ceasedoviposition on the second day followingtransferal to the D. citri diet, but thefecundity and fertility of females of the otherspecies were not different from those feedingon Ephestia eggs. Generation times onthe Ephestia egg diet at 24°C(time to egg hatch + larval developmental time+ pupation time + adult prereproductive period)were (mean ± SEM): C. coeruleus, 56.7± 1.32 d;C. sanguinea, 28.0 ±0.88 d;E. childreni, 60.8 ± 1.96 d;H. axyridis, 32.2 ± 1.47 d;O.v-nigrum, 25.8 ± 1.12 d. Adult females ofC. coeruleus, H. axyridis and O.v-nigrum consumed the most psyllids in oneh, C. sanguinea was intermediate, andE. childreni consumed the least.