Sex and age differences in the avoidance of reptile exhibits by zoo visitors

Visitors at two zoos were observed as they approached the reptile exhibits at the respective institutions. Both age and sex differences were discovered among several variables designed to measure avoidance behavior. At most ages, females more often refused to enter the exhibits than males. Females also spent less time within the exhibits than males. With respect to age differences, teen aged visitors refused to enter less often and spent more time in the exhibits than did individuals of other ages.     

Cage location effects on visitor attendance at three Sacramento Zoo mangabey enclosures

Research on the effects of enrichment would do well to consider carefully location and/or visitor habituation effects on animal behavior. In the present series of studies, 19,847 visitors to the Sacramento Zoo were counted and categorized by age and sex as they appeared at each of three mangabey cages having only slightly different locations within the zoo. A cage nearest the exit/entrance received significantly more visitors (had greater attracting power) than did a cage away from the exit but on the main path, while the latter cage had more patronage than a cage that was only a few feet off the main walkway. These effects persisted through both subtle and complete changes in the animal inhabitants of the cages. These very strong effects, which are similar to those described by Melton's (Pychological Bulletin 30:720, 721, 1983; Museum News 14(3):6–8, 1936) classic “exit gradient” as well as to other possible effects of simple location (e.g., visitor habituation) are particularly important for species that are behaviorally responsive to visitors.     

Relationships between exhibit naturalism,animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese Zoo

Efforts to meet the welfare needs of captive animals (such as the provision of environmental enrichment and naturalistic furnishings) often compromise visitors’ needs (naturalistic exhibits often decrease the visibility of animals on display even though visitors pay to view them). The literature offers different predictions about how zoo visitors respond to decreased animal visibility in naturalistic exhibits but they require further evaluation. Further, visitor research is currently confined to Europe and America and studies outside these areas are limited. This paper investigates the relationships between exhibit naturalism, animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese Zoo. Visitor interest was observed at both naturalistic and barren exhibit designs. The study showed that the influence of animal presence on visitor behaviours was similar at both exhibit designs. Further, visitor interest was not compromised at the naturalistic exhibit when animals were not visible. The results demonstrate that the needs of animals and visitors can be balanced at naturalistic exhibits and support the transformation of exhibits to those representing naturalistic environments.     

Reactions of zoo visitors to free-ranging monkeys

This study assessed the potential of two types of primate exhibit both for enhancing zoo visitors' interest, knowledge, and enjoyment and for promoting conservation education. Visitors' reactions to a free-ranging group of cotton-top tamarins were compared with their responses to caged tamarins in three ways: 1) timing how long visitors spent at each exhibit, 2) recording the comments made by visitors about the exhibits, and 3) asking visitors to respond to questionnaires about the two exhibits. The results showed that the free-ranging group of tamarins provoked wider comment from members of the public than caged groups and that visitors were willing to spend much more time looking for and watching monkeys in trees than monkeys in cages. Visitors felt that improvements in the animals' welfare were obtained from allowing them to live free in the trees, thought that they could learn more from such groups than from caged animals, and enjoyed seeing the free-ranging tamarins more than the monkeys in cages. These results suggest that developing more naturalistic zoo exhibits can have considerable benefits not only for the animals involved, but also for public education in conservation issues. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in open versus closed exhibit designs

Although many studies investigating the impacts of zoo exhibit designs on captive animals exist, none have been performed on how they influence the behavior and welfare of captive Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Here, we assess the impact of exhibit design on the activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies. We compared animal behavior in two open exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors permitted) to two closed exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors prohibited). Behavioral data were collected using focal sampling, and spatial distribution was recorded on exhibit maps at regular time intervals. We found a significant increase in feeding and interactive behaviors in closed exhibits in comparison to open exhibits. However, other behaviors such as resting, locomotion, and vigilance did not vary with design. Functional use of space was similar between both designs; however, the effect of habituation may be relevant to consider in future studies. Although some support for visitor effects were present, our study provided no evidence for strong impacts of exhibit design on Bennett's wallaby welfare. Our study emphasizes the need for additional research into the impacts of how zoo environments affect Bennett's wallaby behavior and welfare.     

Naturalistic Exhibits May be More Effective Than Traditional Exhibits at Improving Zoo-Visitor Attitudes toward African Apes

Zoos play a unique role in wildlife conservation, particularly in the area of conservation education. Because of their popularity and flagship status for broader conservation issues, great apes may prove to be one of the most important educational conduits in zoos. In 2002, we surveyed knowledge of and attitudes toward African apes in visitors to the Lester E. Fisher Great Ape House (GAH) at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, IL, USA. In the current study, we replicated the survey to document attitudes to and knowledge of the newly renovated and naturalistic Regenstein Center for African Apes (RCAA) and compared results. We found RCAA was no more effective than GAH in increasing visitor knowledge about apes, although visitors answered more questions correctly upon exit than on entrance in both buildings. We did find, however, that RCAA was more effective than GAH at improving visitor attitudes toward chimpanzees. Specifically, upon exiting, RCAA visitors showed increased naturalistic attitudes and reduced utilitarian attitudes toward chimpanzees. Exhibiting apes in naturalistic settings may therefore be an effective way to increase visitor concern for apes in nature and in zoos. Zoos and aquariums investing in new, naturalistic ape exhibits with the aim to educate about, provide emotional connections to, improve attitudes toward, and ultimately increase conservation of apes, need to then critically evaluate whether the actual effect of the designed environment on visitors—above and beyond intended benefits for the animals—is commensurate with the investment. The broader impacts of even small shifts in visitor attitude in the right direction could be significant. These findings may vary across species and settings, however, and should be assessed accordingly.     

Habitat Use and Structural Preferences of Captive Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla(: Effects of Environmental and Social Variables

Exhibit naturalism has become the architectural standard for new zoo exhibits, yet our scientific understanding of how animals interact with naturalistic environments is very limited. Given the expense incurred in building new exhibits, it is essential that more information on animal-environment interactions be obtained and that it be incorporated at the outset into exhibit designs. We documented four years of habitat use and structural preferences of western lowland gorillas at Zoo Atlanta. We found that quality of space rather than quantity of space was important, as subjects spent 50% of their time in <15% of the exhibits. Subjects showed strong preferences for the areas near structures, particularly the holding building, and spent significantly less time away from structures than expected. Temperature interacted with structural preferences in that the subjects spent more time away from structures when temperatures were cold and more time near them when temperatures were hot. There was no difference in habitat use and structural preferences due to age, sex, and rearing history, but social factors appear to play a role. Our results are similar to those found a decade earlier in the same population and to other studies of space use in apes but are the first to include significant temperature effects. Additionally, they suggest that managers and designers need to take into account factors such as quality of space, attractiveness of the holding building, and the interaction of structural preferences with variables such as temperature and social factors when designing exhibits.     

Effect of felid activity on zoo visitor interest

The extent to which the presence of zoo visitors influences animal behavior, and the ways in which animal activity influences visitor interest and perception, are of great interest to zoological parks. Visitors have been variously characterized as being enriching for zoo animals, as being stressors, and generally as influencing behavior in measurable ways. Most studies have focused on primates, and have assumed a “visitor effect” paradigm (i.e., visitors influence animal behavior). Here we present findings from a study of a nonprimate group (felids), and examine the “visitor attraction” model, which assumes that visitors are attracted to active animals. We assessed visitor interest and number at seven cat exhibits at the Brookfield Zoo during the spring and summer of 2002. Data were collected during 1‐min scans of each exhibit at 10‐min intervals. The results indicate that visitor presence per se did not influence cat activity, and that visitor interest was generally greater when cats were active. Various species differences may be explained by visitor familiarity with the species, variations in exhibit design, and species‐specific activity budgets. We conclude that the visitor attraction model may be more appropriate for taxa, such as large cats, that tend naturally to be largely inactive and to respond little (if at all) to visitor disturbances or efforts to engage. The relationship must be viewed as bidirectional: visitors influence animal behavior, and animal behavior influences visitor interest. However, the strength and primary direction of this relationship is likely taxon‐specific. We suggest that a visitor attraction model may be more appropriate not only for felids, but for other taxa with similar behavioral patterns and responses as well. Zoo Biol 22:587–599, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Examining the Impact of Naturalistic and Unnaturalistic Environmental Enrichment on Visitor Perception of Naturalness,Animal Welfare,and Conservation

Recent research shows that using different types of enrichment has little to no impact on how zoo visitors perceive the animals or the enclosure in general. The primary objective of the current research was to examine if viewing naturalistic-looking environmental enrichment (NEE) and unnaturalistic-looking environmental enrichment (UEE) has an effect on visitor perceptions of exhibit naturalness, animal welfare, and conservation, while controlling for two factors that can influence visitor perspective: animal visibility and behavior. Study 1 examined the color of enrichment: the NEE was colored to resemble a rock and the UEE was fluorescent pink. Four conditions were recorded: Naturalistic/No Animal, Naturalistic/Animal, Unnaturalistic/No Animal, and Unnaturalistic/Animal. One video was shown to 306 randomly selected visitors who then took a survey including questions on animal welfare, exhibit naturalness, and supporting conservation organizations. Naturalistic/No Animal was perceived by visitors to be the most natural environment and the best of the exhibits for an animal to live in. Study 2 examined different types of NEE and UEE. Eight photos (four with an animal and four without) showing one out of four enrichment items (naturalistic rock, wood wool bedding, traffic cone, cardboard box) were shown to 618 randomly selected visitors who then took a survey similar to study 1. Visitors rated the photos with the NEE consistently higher for questions regarding the naturalness of the exhibit, good animal welfare, and the livability of the environment. Visitors were also asked to rank the four enrichment items from best to worst, and the NEEs were ranked significantly higher than the UEEs. While there are still many unanswered questions regarding visitor perceptions of environmental enrichment in zoos, we hope that focusing on one variant such as color and examining different types of NEE and UEE can help guide future studies on this subject.     

Public perceptions of behavioral enrichment: Assumptions gone awry

More and more, zoos are integrating behavioral enrichment programs into their management routines. Given the newness of such programs on an official level, however, there are an increasing number of enrichment decisions based on assumption. Enrichment is typically not provided on exhibit, especially for exhibits considered to be more naturalistic, because it is assumed to affect visitors' experience negatively. To test that assumption, visitors were interviewed in front of four exhibits—an outdoor barren grotto, an outdoor vegetated grotto, an indoor immersion exhibit, and an outdoor traditional cage—each with either natural, nonnatural or no enrichment objects present. Specifically, we wanted to know whether (1) the exhibit's perceived educational message, (2) the animal's perceived “happiness,” and (3) the visitor perceptions of enrichment, the naturalism of animal's behavior, and zoo animal well-being changed as a function of object type. Overall, the type of enrichment object had little impact on visitor perceptions. In the outdoor barren grotto, only visitor perceptions of exhibit naturalism were affected by object type. In the outdoor vegetated grotto, object type influenced visitors perceptions of enrichment and exhibit naturalism. For the indoor immersion exhibit, general perceptions of enrichment and the perceived naturalism of the animal's behavior were affected. Finally, in the outdoor traditional cage, perceived educational message and general perceptions of enrichment changed as a function of object type. Zoo Biol 17:525–534, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Postoccupancy evaluation of staff,visitors, and three species of animals in a zoo setting

Postoccupancy evaluation (POE) was used to assess newly constructed zoo exhibits from the perspective of three user groups: zoo staff, zoo visitors, and the animals. Staff represents a generally understudied user group in zoo-based POEs. We asked staff to rate the animals' space, the visitors' space, and the staff's space at previous and new exhibits. We also compared zoo visitors' ratings of the animals' behavior and environments, overall exhibit impressions, and the time visitors spent viewing previous and new exhibits. Lastly, we compared activity and space use of a Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), two red pandas (Ailurus fulgens), and one rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in their previous and new exhibits. Staff rated animal, visitor, and staff areas higher at the new exhibits compared to the previous exhibits. Visitors also rated several factors higher and spent more time at the new exhibits. The most naturalistic exhibit received the most favorable ratings in all categories and animal activity increased visitor stay time. We found that red pandas were less active in their new exhibit, and the Komodo dragon and rhino showed no difference in activity. The red pandas and the Komodo dragon used more available space in their new exhibits; however, we recommend using Electivity index to examine resource preferences for these species, whose enclosure use has been less studied than large mammals. We emphasize the importance of including staff in zoo-based POE, make other recommendations for future POE studies, and discuss various factors that could have influenced our results.     

Visitor influence on the behavior of captive greater rheas (Rhea americana, Rheidae Aves)

Visitors can affect and reduce the welfare of nonhuman animals. The Belo Horizonte Zoo, Brazil, had a group of greater rheas intended for reintroduction to the wild. Because this group received public visitation, evaluating its effect on the birds' behavior and welfare was important. The study conducted 60 hr of behavioral observations: 30 with, and 30 without, visitors in front of the birds' enclosure. The study, conducted April-December 2009, collected data using scan sampling with instantaneous recording of behavior every minute. The study collected data on public behavior, visitor density, and time spent observing the birds. More than 4,000 persons visited the birds' enclosure: 9.86 s average time spent. Public behaviors most expressed were walking-watching-talking and stopped-watching-talking; visitors or not, greater rheas' most expressed behaviors (inversed between treatments) were foraging and walking alert; defecating/urinating and other behaviors differed statistically between treatments. Walking alert was most expressed in the presence of visitors; defecating/urinating and other behaviors were most expressed in their absence. Greater rheas seemed to habituate to visitors. Birds' behaviors differed little in visitors' presence or absence.     

Visitor Circulation and Nonhuman Animal Welfare: An Overlooked Variable?

This article investigates visitor circulation and behaviors within a gallery of primate exhibits in relation to their possible implications for nonhuman animal welfare. When entering a primate house, the majority of visitors (84%) turned right, a pattern upheld throughout all times of the day. These findings demonstrate the existence of the "right-turn" principle, a concept previously identified and investigated in the museum setting. The existence of this circulation pattern in zoos has important implications for the practical management of animal welfare issues because unbalanced or large numbers of visitors at specific enclosures could present a stressful influence. The "direction bias" could not be attributed to demographic or behavioral traits, therefore suggesting that the principle, like similar findings from museum research, generalizes across visitor populations and, therefore, zoos. A visitor sample at another exhibit (located outside the exhibit gallery) did not display a direction bias, suggesting that the marked circulation pattern may be specific to exhibit galleries. The article discusses the significance and consequences of visitor circulation with respect to visitor management and animal welfare.     

Visitor circulation and nonhuman animal welfare: an overlooked variable?

This article investigates visitor circulation and behaviors within a gallery of primate exhibits in relation to their possible implications for nonhuman animal welfare. When entering a primate house, the majority of visitors (84%) turned right, a pattern upheld throughout all times of the day. These findings demonstrate the existence of the “right-turn ”principle, a concept previously identified and investigated in the museum setting. The existence of this circulation pattern in zoos has important implications for the practical management of animal welfare issues because unbalanced or large numbers of visitors at specific enclosures could present a stressful influence. The “direction bias ”could not be attributed to demographic or behavioral traits, therefore suggesting that the principle, like similar findings from museum research, generalizes across visitor populations and, therefore, zoos. A visitor sample at another exhibit (located outside the exhibit gallery) did not display a direction bias, suggesting that the marked circulation pattern may be specific to exhibit galleries. The article discusses the significance and consequences of visitor circulation with respect to visitor management and animal welfare.     

Visitor-directed aggression among the Gibraltar macaques

Animal parks and exhibits which offer visitors the option of close interaction with the animals displayed have been very successful with some species, including primates. However, there is always an element of risk to the visitor who enters another species' environment and interacts with its members. This risk factor may cause particular concern when the exhibit animal is a nonhuman primate because of the transmission of various zoonoses. The Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Queen's Gate, Gibraltar, attract large numbers of tourists who are permitted to feed them. This animal-human contact sometimes results in monkeys biting visitors. Bite frequency data from hospital records for 1980–1989 and direct observations (July 1990–June 1991) form the basis of this study. Biting is a density-dependent phenomenon since monkey-visitor aggression rates increase with visitor numbers. Time of day affects bite rates, more people being bitten in the afternoon—the main visitation time. Likewise, more bites are recorded during summer months when visitor numbers are higher. A tendency towards acclimatization of the monkeys to the very large number of visitors appears after 1985. Rank correlation coefficients between visitor numbers and bites per month fall from 1985 to 1989, reflecting a drop in visitor density response. Analysis of visitor profiles indicates a negative correlation between visitor age and likelihood of being bitten. However, women are bitten significantly more than men. Average age of people bitten also varies between months. Recorded aggression levels are generally low despite no control over animal-visitor interactions, but are much higher than in similar Barbary macaque enclosures in France and Germany. The Gibraltar troop's small home range and high visitor density may explain recorded bite levels. Effective visitor education can significantly lower biting incidence.     

Visitor Influence on the Behavior of Captive Greater Rheas (Rhea americana,Rheidae Aves)

Visitors can affect and reduce the welfare of nonhuman animals. The Belo Horizonte Zoo, Brazil, had a group of greater rheas intended for reintroduction to the wild. Because this group received public visitation, evaluating its effect on the birds' behavior and welfare was important. The study conducted 60 hr of behavioral observations: 30 with, and 30 without, visitors in front of the birds' enclosure. The study, conducted April–December 2009, collected data using scan sampling with instantaneous recording of behavior every minute. The study collected data on public behavior, visitor density, and time spent observing the birds. More than 4,000 persons visited the birds' enclosure: 9.86 s average time spent. Public behaviors most expressed were walking-watching-talking and stopped-watching-talking; visitors or not, greater rheas' most expressed behaviors (inversed between treatments) were foraging and walking alert; defecating/urinating and other behaviors differed statistically between treatments. Walking alert was most expressed in the presence of visitors; defecating/urinating and other behaviors were most expressed in their absence. Greater rheas seemed to habituate to visitors. Birds' behaviors differed little in visitors' presence or absence.     

Siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) and White-Cheeked Gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) Show Few Behavioral Differences Related to Zoo Attendance

The effect of visitors on behavior and welfare of nonhuman animals in the zoo has been an active research topic during the last few decades. Although research has variously shown negative or positive impacts of zoo visitors on animals in captivity, previous primate research at Disney's Animal Kingdom® suggests the importance of visual barriers in allowing animals to cope with large crowds. Examining this further, this study monitored the behavior of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) and siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) in large, open exhibits. Behavioral data showed rates of social behavior and percentage of time engaged in solitary behavior did not differ between low and high visitor-attendance days. Both gibbons and siamangs spent more time in areas away from the public on high attendance days. Supporting previous findings, results imply visual barriers and ability to retreat from crowds may have provided these animals with choice and minimized potential negative visitor impact. Future research should focus on the relationship between attendance and actual crowds at exhibits; it should utilize multi-institutional methodologies to control for variance and look for individual and demographic differences between individuals.     

A competitive drive? Same‐sex attentional preferences in capuchins

In primates, faces provide information about several characteristics of social significance, including age, physical health, and biological sex. However, despite a growing literature on face processing and visual attention in a number of primate species, preferences for same‐ or opposite‐sex faces have not yet been examined. In the current study, we explore the role of conspecific sex on visual attention in two groups of capuchin monkeys. Subjects were shown a series of image pairs on a Tobii Pro TX300 eye tracker, each depicting an unfamiliar male and an unfamiliar female face. Given the behavioral evidence of mate choice in both sexes, we hypothesized that capuchins would preferentially attend to images of unfamiliar conspecifics of the opposite sex. Our alternative hypothesis was that capuchins would preferentially attend to same‐sex individuals to assess potential competitors. Our results provide support for our alternative hypothesis. When comparing attention to each stimuli type across sexes, females spent significantly larger percentages of time than males looking at female photos, whereas males spent significantly larger percentages of time than females looking at male photos. Within each sex, females looked for significantly larger percentages of time to female versus male images. Males also looked for larger percentages of time to same‐sex images, though not significantly. To our knowledge, these data are the first to demonstrate significant sex‐biased attentional preferences in adult primates of any species, and suggest that, for capuchins, potential competitors garner more attention than potential mates. In addition, our findings have implications for studies of visual attention and face processing across the primate order, and suggest that researchers need to control for these demographic factors in their experimental designs.     

A visual exploration apparatus for infant monkeys

An apparatus was constructed to study visual exploration in infant rhesus macaques. It consisted of an enclosed two-chamber box with a peephole at each end. The floor was made of stainless steel bars, and the walls and top were made of Plexiglas covered with Masonite. The peepholes were recessed in alcoves. An infrared photobeam crossed the alcoves in front of each peephole so that whenever the monkey looked out its head broke the photobeam. Slides of complex scenes were projected on back-lit frosted plexiglas screens. The monkey's position in the box was monitored by its resistance across the floor bars. Whenever the monkey went from one side of the box to the other, a new slide was projected on the side just entered. The session progressed until either 40 slides had been displayed on each side or 30 minutes had elapsed. The primary behavioral measures taken were session length, number of slides displayed, time spent looking, number of looks, and time spent looking at the first slide on each side. Serveral other performance measures were derived from these basic measures: time looked/slide, number of looks/slide, and average length of look (time looked/number of looks). The monkeys readily performed in this apparatus, looking out through the peepholes for an average of about 14% of each session with attentional episodes of just under 3 seconds. This apparatus has proven useful for automatically measuring visual exploration behavior in infant monkeys and can be readily adapted for use in many types of studies.     

The gap in technology for visitor experience in a zoo: A case study in Indonesia

Technology has routinely been used in zoos to enhance the visitor experience, for public education and for conservation awareness. However, studies into technology-aided exhibits in zoos have thus far been limited to zoos in western society. This article reports on an Indonesian zoo deploying new technology in its exhibits and how visitors interacted with these exhibits. A case study guided both an investigation of the visitors' technology usage of zoo exhibits and zoo implementation of technological processes. Interviews with visitors, zoo staff, and managers were conducted and analyzed and these were supplemented with on-site observations. The results indicated that the majority of zoo visitors did not use the technological applications provided by the zoo. In addition, there was found to be a significant lack of staff engagement in the consultation, design, implementation, and maintenance of the technology. Correlations were found between visitors' level of technology usage, their reading of signage, their day-to-day technology usage, and their conservation knowledge. The findings suggest that an understanding of visitor' behavior, active staff engagement in the development and implementation of new technology, in addition to emotion-inducing interpretation, and purposefully guided interactions, could increase the use of technology at a zoo and thus enhance positive visitor engagement, ultimately resulting in heightened educational as well as conservational outcomes.