Saturation mutagenesis for dominant eye morphological defects in the mouse Mus musculus

We have summarized our extensive series of mutagenesis experiments to isolate dominant mutations in the mouse that express eye morphological defects. Thirty-two experimental groups in which parental mice were exposed to chemical mutagens or irradiation and a historical control group of the laboratory are presented. The largest series of experiments included parental exposure to ethylnitrosourea or irradiation. A total of 203 dominant mutants were confirmed among 456,890 offspring screened, which represents one of the largest collections of mutations in the mouse affecting one organ following a systematic screen of offspring of mutagenized animals. The largest group of mutations (92) was recovered in offspring of parental mice exposed to ethylnitrosourea. The second largest group of mutations (62) was recovered in irradiation experiments. Fifty-six mutations recovered in ethylnitrosourea experiments have been mapped to 22 loci. The affected genes have been identified for a number of the recovered mutations including Cryga, Crygb, Cgyge, Pax6, Pax2, Mitf, Lim2, and Cx50. On the basis of our experiences, a number of considerations when undertaking such screens are discussed, including a) choice of mutagen, b) experimental design, and c) the criteria for such experiments to ensure that mutations at novel loci will be recovered. Received: 16 December 1999 / Accepted: 16 December 1999     

Organ specific expression of esterase-6 in the house mouse,Mus musculus

Summary Esterase-6 in fresh homogenates of heart muscle and testis of the house mouse shows a two band (C allele) or three band (A allele) pattern in disc electrophoresis. These primary bands generated a series of secondary bands upon lowering the pH of the homogenates, and the secondary pattern, possibly resulting from partial proteolysis, was seen in varying degrees in fresh homogenates from a range of organs. Interrelationships between the primary and secondary bands were demonstrated by isoelectric focusing. The esterase-6 content of twenty different organ homogenates was estimated from electrophoretic gels, and a high level of this enzyme was observed in those organs most actively involved in fat metabolism. The possible participation of esterase-6 in fatty acid utilization is discussed. Similarities between esterase-6 of the house mouse and esterase-4 of the rat were demonstrated, further strengthening the view that these enzymes are homologous.Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 46)This is communication no 36 of a research program devoted to the cellular distribution, genetics, and regulation of non-specific esterases     

Pax6 and eye development in Arthropoda

The arthropod compound eye is one of the three main types of eyes observed in the animal kingdom. Comparison of the eyes seen in Insecta, Crustacea, Myriapoda and Chelicerata reveals considerable variation in terms of overall cell number, cell positioning, and photoreceptor rhabdomeres, yet, molecular data suggest there may be unexpected similarities. We review here the role of Pax6 in eye development and evolution and the relationship of Pax6 with other retinal determination genes and signaling pathways. We then discuss how the study of changes in Pax6 primary structure, in the gene networks controlled by Pax6 and in the relationship of Pax6 with signaling pathways may contribute to our insight into the relative role of conserved molecular-genetic mechanisms and emergence of evolutionary novelty in shaping the ommatidial eyes seen in the Arthropoda.     

Analysis of Pax6 Contiguous Gene Deletions in the Mouse,Mus musculus,Identifies Regions Distinct from Pax6 Responsible for Extreme Small-Eye and Belly-Spotting Phenotypes

In the mouse Pax6 function is critical in a dose-dependent manner for proper eye development. Pax6 contiguous gene deletions were shown to be homozygous lethal at an early embryonic stage. Heterozygotes express belly spotting and extreme microphthalmia. The eye phenotype is more severe than in heterozygous Pax6 intragenic null mutants, raising the possibility that deletions are functionally different from intragenic null mutations or that a region distinct from Pax6 included in the deletions affects eye phenotype. We recovered and identified the exact regions deleted in three new Pax6 deletions. All are homozygous lethal at an early embryonic stage. None express belly spotting. One expresses extreme microphthalmia and two express the milder eye phenotype similar to Pax6 intragenic null mutants. Analysis of Pax6 expression levels and the major isoforms excluded the hypothesis that the deletions expressing extreme microphthalmia are directly due to the action of Pax6 and functionally different from intragenic null mutations. A region distinct from Pax6 containing eight genes was identified for belly spotting. A second region containing one gene (Rcn1) was identified for the extreme microphthalmia phenotype. Rcn1 is a Ca⁺²-binding protein, resident in the endoplasmic reticulum, participates in the secretory pathway and expressed in the eye. Our results suggest that deletion of Rcn1 directly or indirectly contributes to the eye phenotype in Pax6 contiguous gene deletions.CONTIGUOUS gene deletions account for a significant portion of human genetic syndromes. The application of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) cytogenetics and array comparative genome hybridization (array-CGH) technologies have enabled more accurate localization of deletion breakpoints. This deletion information combined with the annotation of the human genome structure provides critical information to identify genes responsible for particular phenotypes associated with a syndrome. For example, deletions of the 11p11p12 and 11p13 regions on the short arm of human chromosome (Chr) 11 have been identified in the Potocki–Shaffer syndrome (Shaffer et al. 1993; Bartsch et al. 1996; Potocki and Shaffer 1996) and the Wilm''s tumor- aniridia- genitourinary abnormalities- mental retardation (WAGR) syndrome (Riccardi et al. 1978; Francke et al. 1979; Hittner et al. 1979; Fryns et al. 1981), respectively. Deletion analyses were important in identifying genes associated with clinical features of the syndromes: EXT2 for multiple exostoses and ALX4 for parietal foramina in Potocki–Shaffer syndrome (Ligon et al. 1998; Wu et al. 2000; Wakui et al. 2005), WT1 for Wilm''s tumor, and PAX6 for aniridia in WAGR syndrome (van Heyningen et al. 1985; Glaser et al. 1986, 1992; Fantes et al. 1992). Deletion analyses have also defined the extent of the deleted region in patients with combined Potocki–Shaffer and WAGR syndromes (McGaughran et al. 1995; Brémond-Gignac et al. 2005) as well as microdeletions 3′ to PAX6, which prevent expression of PAX6 and cause aniridia (Lauderdale et al. 2000; D''elia et al. 2007; Davis et al. 2008).The mouse Chr 2 region homologous to the human WAGR region contains the genes Wt1, Rcn1, Pax6, and Elp4. An extensive allelic series at Pax6 has been identified (Bult et al. 2008). Heterozygote Pax6 intragenic null mutants express microphthalmia, iris anomalies, corneal opacities, lens opacities, and lens-corneal adhesions. Homozygotes are anophthalmic and die shortly after birth (Roberts 1967; Hogan et al. 1986). Five deletions in the region have been identified: Pax6^Sey-Dey, Pax6^Sey-H, Pax6^Sey-2H, Pax6^Sey-3H, Pax6^Sey-4H of which two, Pax6^Sey-H (Hogan et al. 1986; Kent et al. 1997; Kleinjan et al. 2002; Webb et al. 2008) and Pax6^Sey-Dey (Theiler et al. 1978; Hogan et al. 1987; Glaser et al. 1990), have been well characterized. Heterozygotes for both deletions express belly spotting and a more extreme eye phenotype than that observed for heterozygotes of intragenic Pax6 null mutations. Homozygotes for both deletions are lethal at an early embryonic stage.We were particularly interested in the extreme eye phenotype associated with the Pax6 deletions and considered two alternative hypotheses. Either Pax6 deletions are functionally different from Pax6 intragenic null mutations or deletion of a region linked to but distinct from the Pax6 structural gene affects the eye phenotype.In the present study we identify three new deletions encompassing the Pax6 region of the mouse. They have been assigned the mutant allele symbols Del(2)Pax6^11Neu/1Neu, Del(2)Pax6^12Neu/2Neu, and Del(2)Pax6^13Neu/3Neu and will be referred to throughout this publication as Pax6^11Neu, Pax6^12Neu, and Pax6^13Neu, respectively. All three deletions are homozygous lethal at an early embryonic stage. The deletions differentiate for the extent of the eye abnormality expressed: Pax6^11Neu heterozygotes express extreme microphthalmia similar to that observed in the Pax6^Sey-Dey and Pax6^Sey-H deletions. Pax6^12Neu and Pax6^13Neu heterozygotes express the milder eye abnormality seen in heterozygous intragenic null mutants. For all three deletions, heterozygotes do not express belly spotting. Genetic, phenotypic, and molecular characterization of the deletions allowed us to identify regions associated with the array of phenotypes in these contiguous gene deletions.     

Succinate dehydrogenase activity in the developing molar of the hairless mouse Mus musculus

Synopsis Succinate dehydrogenase activity in the odontogenic tissues of the hairless mouse (hr/hr) has been studied from the initiation of the dental lamina through apposition. Enzyme activities were designated as negative, slight, moderate and strong as a function of intensity of the reaction product. Enzyme levels in the odontogenic tissues increased with advancing tooth morphogenesis. Greatest activity was observed in the ameloblastic layer which peaked on the fourth to sixth postnatal days. This cell layer displayed higher enzyme activity than the ectomesenchymally-derived odontoblasts. Succinate dehydrogenase activity appeared to be related to the degree of differentiation and functional competence on the odontogenic tissues of the hairless mouse.     

Molecular characterization of Pax6(2Neu) through Pax6(10Neu): an extension of the Pax6 allelic series and the identification of two possible hypomorph alleles in the mouse Mus musculus.

Phenotype-based mutagenesis experiments will increase the mouse mutant resource, generating mutations at previously unmarked loci as well as extending the allelic series at known loci. Mapping, molecular characterization, and phenotypic analysis of nine independent Pax6 mutations of the mouse recovered in mutagenesis experiments is presented. Seven mutations result in premature termination of translation and all express phenotypes characteristic of null alleles, suggesting that Pax6 function requires all domains to be intact. Of major interest is the identification of two possible hypomorph mutations: Heterozygotes express less severe phenotypes and homozygotes develop rudimentary eyes and nasal processes and survive up to 36 hr after birth. Pax6(4Neu) results in an amino acid substitution within the third helix of the homeodomain. Three-dimensional modeling indicates that the amino acid substitution interrupts the homeodomain recognition alpha-helix, which is critical for DNA binding. Whereas cooperative dimer binding of the mutant homeodomain to a paired-class DNA target sequence was eliminated, weak monomer binding was observed. Thus, a residual function of the mutated homeodomain may explain the hypomorphic nature of the Pax6(4Neu) allele. Pax6(7Neu) is a base pair substitution in the Kozak sequence and results in a reduced level of Pax6 translation product. The Pax6(4Neu) and Pax6(7Neu) alleles may be very useful for gene-dosage studies.     

Studies on salmonellosis in the house mouse, Mus musculus.

Salmonellae were isolated from the faeces from 17 of 170 (10%) wild house mice. Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from 10, S. typhimurium, var. Copenhagen from 2, S. thompson from 1, and S. muenchen from 4. It was concluded that house mice could be a reservoir of infection and play an important role in human and animal salmonellosis.     

Two erythrocytic lactate dehydrogenase variants in the house mouse, Mus musculus

Two erythrocytic LDH variants have been found in the house mouse, Mus musculus. One, involving the presence and absence of the next to the slowest electrophoretically separable isozyme, is controlled by a regulatory locus which may be similar to Ldr-1 (Shows and Ruddle, 1968). The second appears to be indirectly controlled by the Hbb locus and may be attributed to the accumulation of a storage product in the lysates. Ldr-1 is polymorphic in natural populations of the house mouse.