细胞凋亡检测方法新进展

细胞凋亡是生命科学研究的热点之一,检测细胞凋亡的方法层出不穷。目前,用于体外细胞凋亡检测的方法已相对成熟,比如:流式细胞术、TUNEL检测法、DNA片断检测等。而用于体内细胞凋亡检测的试剂则正在研究之中,各种检测试剂不断出现。其中,Annexin V、Synap-totagmin I-C2A、ApoSense家族分子与其他检测试剂相比具有一定的优势。该文在介绍几种常用的体外细胞凋亡检测方法的同时,重点介绍上述三种试剂。     

The Tyrosine Phosphatase SHP2 Modulates MAP Kinase p38 and Caspase 1 and 3 to Foster Neuronal Survival

1. The Src homology protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 is associated with cytoskeletal maintenance, cell division, and cell differentiation, but the role of SHP2 during central nervous system injury requires further definition. We therefore characterized the role of SHP2 during nitric oxide (NO)-induced programmed cell death (PCD).2. Employing primary hippocampal neurons from mice with a dominant negative SHP2 mutant to render the phosphatase site of the SHP2 protein biologically inactive, but functionally capable of binding substrate, neuronal injury was evaluated by trypan blue, DNA fragmentation, membrane phosphatidyl serine (PS) exposure, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase phosphorylation, and cysteine protease activity. NO was administered through the NO generators SIN-1 (300 M) or NOC-9 (300 M).3. Following NO exposure, neuronal survival decreased from 89 ± 3% in untreated controls to 37 ± 2% in wild-type neurons and to 21 ± 4% in SHP2 mutant neurons. In sister cultures following NO exposure, this increased susceptibility to neuronal injury paralleled enhanced genomic DNA degradation and membrane PS exposure with PCD induction increasing in SHP2 mutant neurons by approximately 42% during specified time periods when compared to wild-type neurons. Interestingly, modulation of the MAP kinase p38 appears to represent an initial level of neuronal protection employed by SHP2. In addition, both the rate and degree of caspase 1- and caspase 3-like activities in SHP2 mutant neurons were significantly increased over a 24-h course when compared to wild-type neurons. Inhibition of caspase 1- and caspase 3-like activities reversed the progression of neuronal PCD, suggesting that inhibition of cysteine protease activity is a downstream mechanism for SHP2 to afford neuronal protection.4. Our work supports the premise that the tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 plays a dominant role during NO-induced PCD and may offer a potential molecular checkpoint against neurodegenerative disease.     

核酸内切酶在细胞凋亡中的作用

核酸内切酶在形成细胞凋亡的典型特征——DNA片段化中,发挥着直接的重要作用.介绍了已知的参与细胞凋亡的二价金属离子依赖性和非依赖性核酸内切酶种类,其中二价金属离子依赖性主要有nuc18、DNaseⅠ、Ca^2＋/Mg^2＋核酸内切酶、Ca^2＋/Mn^2＋核酸内切酶、DNaseγ、nuc58和nuc40;二价金属离子非依赖型主要有DNaseⅡ及类似核酸内切酶.此外,还初步探讨了核酸内切酶降解染色质DNA的过程及其作用机制.     

流式细胞术在细胞凋亡检测中的应用

凋亡是细胞受一些生理或病理信号刺激时所发生的一种程序性死亡过程.近年来,有关肿瘤细胞凋亡的研究已成为一个新的研究热点．围绕凋亡细胞出现的典型的形态变化及生化改变,建立了一些检测分析凋亡细胞的方法．文章着重概述了流式细胞术（FCM）在细胞凋亡研究中的应用,尤其是NT法、TdT法及SBIP法等新方法的价值.     

Localization of Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) in Mice by Administration of Lipopolysaccharide

Localization of apoptotic cells by administration of lipopolysaccharide into mice was studied by using the in situ specific labeling of fragmented DNA. This method clearly stained the nuclei of thymocytes at the cortex of the thymus. The nuclei of cells in the bone marrow and in the spleen were also positively stained. It was suggested that the cortex in the thymus is where the LPS-induced programmed cell death occurs.     

Oligonucleosomal DNA Fragmentation in MCF-7 Cells Undergoing Palmitate-Induced Apoptosis

Oligonucleosomal fragmentation of nuclear DNA is the late-stage apoptosis hallmark. In apoptotic mammalian cells the fragmentation is catalyzed by DFF40/CAD DNase primarily activated by caspase 3 through the site-specific proteolytic cleavage of DFF45/ICAD. A deletion in the casp3 gene of human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 results in lack of procaspase 3 in these cells. The absence of caspase 3 in MCF-7 leads to disability to activate oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation in TNF-alpha induced cell death. In this study, sodium palmitate was used as an apoptotic stimulus for MCF-7. It has been shown that palmitate but not TNF-alpha induces both apoptotic changes in nuclei and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation in casp3-mutated MCF-7. Activation and accumulation of 40-50 kD DFF40-like DNases in nuclei of palmitate-treated apoptotic MCF-7 were detected by SDS-DNA-PAGE assay. Microsomal fraction of apoptotic MCF-7 does not contain any detectable DNases, but activates 40-50 kD nucleases when incubated with human placental chromatin. Furthermore, microsomes of apoptotic MCF-7 induce oligonucleosomal fragmentation of chromatin in a cell-free system. Both the activation of DNases and chromatin fragmentation are suppressed in the presence of the caspase 3/7 inhibitor Ac-DEVD-CHO. Microsome-associated caspase 7 is suggested to play an essential role in the induction of oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation in casp3-deficient MCF-7 cells.     

Apoptosis: Identification of dying cells

Cell death is usually classified into two broad categories: apoptosis and necrosis. Necrosis is a passive, catabolic process, always pathological, that represents a cell's response to extreme accidental or toxic insults. Apoptosis, in contrast, occurs under normal physiological conditions and is an active process requiring energy. However, apoptosis can also be elicited in a pathological way by toxic injury or during disease processes. In these nonphysiological conditions, both types of cell death can be encountered following the same initial insult and the balance between death by apoptosis and by necrosis appears to depend upon the intensity of the injury and the level of available intracellular ATP. It is important, however, to discriminate between apoptosis and necrosis in pathological conditions, as therapeutic intervention could be considered in apoptotic cell death with putative new pharmacological agents aimed at interfering with the key molecular events involved. In most cases, none of the current laboratory techniques used alone allows for unambiguous identification of apoptotic cells. Some of the most common methods based on morphology, biochemistry, and plasma membrane changes are discussed in terms of specificity and possible sources of error in data interpretation. As a rule, classification of cell death in a given model should always include morphological examination coupled with at least one of the other assays.     

Apoptosis in Etiolated Wheat Seedlings: 1. Ultrastructure of the Apoptotic Cell

We studied the process of apoptosis in etiolated wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. As a result, an integral pattern of the apoptotic plant cell ultrastructure was established. In the apoptotic cells of the coleoptile, we observed chromatin condensation and margination, an increased density and specific cytoplasm fragmentation accompanied by the appearance of unusual cytoplasmic vesicles containing subcellular organelles, mitochondria in particular, in the vacuoles.     

4种人参属植物基因组大小的测定

人参属（Panax）植物是重要的药用植物资源。以水稻（Oryzasativa）为内标,利用流式细胞术测定了三七（Panaxnotoginseng）、屏边三七（Panaxstipuleanatus）、越南三七（Panaxvietnamensis）及假人参（几n似pse“doginseng）4种人参属植物的基因组大小。结果表明,4种植物的基因组大小各不相同,其中。三七的最大,而屏边三七的最小。本组数据将为该属植物的基因组学研究以及种群进化研究提供基础数据参考。     

Estimation of Genome Size of Four Panax Species by Flow Cytometry*

Ginseng genus Panax, a member of family Araliaceae, consists of about 11 species in total. Most species of this genus are applied as tonic and medicinal plant resources. In this article, the genome size (C Value) of four ginseng species was estimated by flow cytometry using Oryza sativa as the internal reference. The results revealed that the C Values of four species are different from each other, and the C Value of Pnotoginseng is the largest, while the C Value of Pstipuleanatus is the smallest one.     

Step-specific Sorting of Mouse Spermatids by Flow Cytometry

The differentiation of mouse spermatids is one critical process for the production of a functional male gamete with an intact genome to be transmitted to the next generation. So far, molecular studies of this morphological transition have been hampered by the lack of a method allowing adequate separation of these important steps of spermatid differentiation for subsequent analyses. Earlier attempts at proper gating of these cells using flow cytometry may have been difficult because of a peculiar increase in DNA fluorescence in spermatids undergoing chromatin remodeling. Based on this observation, we provide details of a simple flow cytometry scheme, allowing reproducible purification of four populations of mouse spermatids fixed with ethanol, each representing a different state in the nuclear remodeling process. Population enrichment is confirmed using step-specific markers and morphological criterions. The purified spermatids can be used for genomic and proteomic analyses.     

Gap junction blockage limits intercellular spreading of astrocytic apoptosis induced by metabolic depression

Astrocytes are highly coupled by gap junction channels, which allow transfer of intracellular signalling molecules and metabolites between connected cells. Astrocytic gap junctions remain open during ischemic conditions as previously demonstrated in vitro and in situ. In this study, we investigated the effect of gap junction blockage on iodoacetate-induced ATP depression and cell death progression in astrocytes in primary rat hippocampal cultures. We demonstrated that blockage of gap junctions during iodoacetate-induced inhibition of the glycolysis induced an earlier onset of the ATP depression. Moreover, initiation of apoptotic processes, demonstrated by binding of Annexin V, was critically dependent on the ATP levels. The apoptotic event was also shown to spread and involve neighbouring cells, a process that was inhibited by blockage of gap junction communication. Chelating intracellular calcium using BAPTA-AM decelerated the iodoacetate-induced ATP depression. The chelation also decelerated the spreading of apoptotic processes. Inhibition of caspases did not alter the expansion of cell groups being Annexin V positive. However, the proportion of Annexin V positive cells also being propidium iodide positive was increased after caspase inhibition. The results show that inhibition of gap junctions during cellular metabolic depression interferes with the metabolic status and cell death progression in astrocytes.     

The Schrödinger''s Cat Quandary in Cell Biology: Integration of Live Cell Functional Assays with Measurements of Fixed Cells in Analysis of Apoptosis

The existing cytometric methodologies do not allow one to directly correlate, within the same cells, functional cell attributes that are revealed supravitally with features that require cell fixation to be detected or measured. Taking advantage of the "file merge" feature of the laser-scanning cytometer, we have been able to correlate the supravital changes that occur during apoptosis, namely the drop in mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Delta Psim) and generation of the reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs), with features revealed by analysis of fixed cells: the cell cycle position and DNA fragmentation. The cell cycle position was established based on the cell's stainability with propidium iodide while DNA fragmentation was assessed by in situ DNA strand break labeling using exogenous terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase. During apoptosis of HL-60 cells induced by the DNA topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin (CPT), the dissipation of Delta Psim occurred preferentially in S-phase cells and preceded the appearance of DNA strand breaks. Essentially all cells with DNA strand breaks had dissipated Delta Psim. Compared to the decrease of Delta Psim, the CPT-induced rise in ROIs during apoptosis was less restricted to S-phase cells. Furthermore, no elevation of ROIs was detected in a significant proportion of cells with DNA strand breaks. The data suggest that DNA fragmentation may occur in some cells prior to the increase in ROIs and thus, unlike the dissipation of Delta Psim, the oxidative stress may not be a prerequisite for activation of an endonuclease. Alternatively, the oxidative stress may be a transient event, occupying a narrow "time window" during the apoptotic process. The approach opens a possibility to study direct relationships, within the same cells, between cellular changes (e.g., occurring during apoptosis, mitogenesis, differentiation, etc.) detected by functional assays of live cells and changes that cannot be analyzed supravitally.     

Induction of apoptosis by gemcitabine in BG-1 human ovarian cancer cells compared with induction by staurosporine, paclitaxel and cisplatin

A variety of chemotherapeutic agents induce cell death via apoptosis. We had shown previously that gemcitabine (2,2-difluorodeoxycytidine) induced an atypical apoptosis in BG-1 human ovarian cancer cells; therefore, further studies were conducted to characterize more precisely gemcitabine-induced apoptosis in BG-1 cells compared to a general inducer of apoptosis, staurosporine. BG-1 cells exposed to 0.5, 1.0 and 10 M gemcitabine for 8 h, or staurosporine (1.0 M) for 6 h, exhibited high molecular weight DNA fragmentation (50 kbp); however, only staurosporine treatment produced internucleosomal DNA fragments (200 bp) in a laddered pattern on the agarose gel. Staurosporine (1.0 M) rapidly induced phosphatidylserine plasma membrane translocation that increased linearly with time as measured by annexin V-FITC binding, and similar kinetics were observed for caspase activation by staurosporine in BG-1 cells. In contrast, 10 M gemcitabine increased phosphatidylserine expression in a small fraction of cells (5–10%) vs. untreated controls over the course of 48 h and significant caspase activity was detected within 12 h of drug exposure. Time-lapse video microscopy of BG-1 cells exposed to 1.0 M staurosporine or 10 M gemcitabine for up to 72 h showed that the morphologic changes and kinetics of cell death induced by these agents differed significantly. We also evaluated the apoptosis induced by paclitaxel (a mitotic poison) and cisplatin (an agent not dependent on cell cycle functions) in BG-1 cells by these methods because these drugs are used clinically to treat ovarian cancer. Our findings demonstrate that the kinetics of apoptotic cell death induced by gemcitabine and other chemotherapeutic agents should be taken into account when designing treatment strategies for ovarian cancer.     

Exploring the Potential Mechanism of Costunolide-Induced MCF-7 Cells Apoptosis by Multi-Spectroscopy,Molecular Docking and Cell Experiments

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancer with high morbidity and mortality in women. This study aimed to explore the potential mechanism of costunolide inducing MCF-7 cells apoptosis by multi-spectroscopy, molecular docking, and cell experiments. The results manifested that costunolide interacted with calf thymus DNA (ct-DNA) in a spontaneous manner, and the minor groove as the preferential binding mode. Furthermore, costunolide inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation. Hoechst 33258 staining showed that cell apoptosis induced by costunolide might be related to DNA damage. The apoptosis mechanism relied on regulating the protein expression of Bax, Bcl-2, p53, Caspase-3 and the activation of p38MAPK and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathways. This study will provide some experimental basis and potential therapeutic strategy for breast cancer treatment.     

Simultaneous Measurement of DAPI-Sulforhodamine 101 Stained Nuclear DNA and Protein in Higher Plants by Flow Cytometry

A 2-step staining procedure is presented for simultaneous measurement of nuclear DNA and protein content in higher plants by flow cytometry. To release nuclei, plant tissues were chopped and stirred in the presence of the DNA specific fluorochrome 4', 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and the nonionic detergent Triton X-100. Plant protoplasts were stirred in the DAPI dye solution with the detergent. After a short incubation period a second dye solution containing DAPI and the protein fluorochrome sulforhodamine 101 (SR 101) without detergent was added. Following another incubation, and after filtration through nylon gauze, the highly fluorescent nuclei were analyzed with an impulse cytophotometer. Accurate bivariate DNA-protein histograms were obtained with CV-values of about 2% or less for the 2C-peak of the univariate DNA parameter. The method presented here can be used for basic and applied cytogenetic studies of higher plants, for characterization of subcompartments of the cell cycle phases, or for examination of heterogeneity in plant tissues.     

Apoptosis in Etiolated Wheat Seedlings: 2. Effects of the Antioxidant Butylated Hydroxytoluene and Peroxides

The antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, 50 mg/l, 2.27 × 10^–4 M) was found to prevent the development of characteristic signs of senescence and apoptosis in the cells of etiolated wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. In particular, BHT blocked the apoptotic and age-induced formation of specific cytoplasmic mitochondria-containing vesicles in the coleoptiles. In contrast, the oxidants (H₂O₂ and cumene hydroxyperoxide) accelerated apoptosis (DNA fragmentation) in the coleoptiles and induced it in the first leaves, while in the control leaves, there were no signs of apoptosis. Thus, the programmed developmental apoptosis is controlled by the reactive oxygen species (ROS), and anti- and prooxidants can actively affect this process. In the coleoptile, BHT induced substantial changes in the ultrastructure of all cell organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, plastids, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum). It also induced the formation of unusual membrane structures in the cytoplasm and impaired nucleus and cell divisions. As a result, giant multilobed nuclei and multinuclear cells appeared. The effects of the antioxidant were tissue-specific: BHT did not noticeably affect cell ultrastructure in the first leaf. In roots of etiolated seedlings, BHT stimulated unusual plastid differentiation that resulted in the formation of chloroplasts, which is a phenomenon abnormal for roots. The BHT effects on the plant are evidently related to its antioxidant properties. Indeed, its structural analog, 3,5-di-tert-butyltoluene, which does not exhibit antioxidant properties, was physiologically inert. The BHT-controlled ROS evidently triggered apoptosis and produced age-dependent structural rearrangements of the cytoplasm and the formation of specific mitochondria-containing vesicles, which actively synthesize mtDNA. ROS inactivation by BHT is evidently responsible for BHT-induced changes in the structure of all cell organelles. Therefore, we believe that ROS control cell division (including nucleus division and cell-wall formation) and affect the differentiation of plastids and Golgi apparatus. In such a way, ROS effectively control plant growth and development.     

实时监测溶酶体光损伤诱导细胞凋亡过程中Bax定位的时空变化

光敏剂N-aspartyl chlorin e6 (NPe6)能特异性定位于溶酶体,溶酶体光损伤光能触发线粒体凋亡通路从而诱导细胞凋亡.Bax是Bcl-2家族一员,是调控细胞凋亡的关键因子之一.静息态下,Bax定位于细胞质中;而在细胞凋亡过程中,Bax会从细胞质转位到线粒体,损伤线粒体,从而启动细胞凋亡.在本研究中,我们在活细胞内实时监控溶酶体光损伤诱导细胞凋亡过程中Bax亚细胞定位的动态变化.结果表明,溶酶体光损伤后约170 min,Bax开始转位到线粒体,在30 min之内便大量聚集在线粒体上.该研究结果实时动态地展示了细胞凋亡过程中Bax的时空变化过程.     

高通量低功率激光照射诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的分子机制研究

低功率激光照射（low—power laser irradiation,LPLI）能够引起广泛的促细胞增殖、分化等生物刺激效应。基于这些效应,低功率激光治疗已经成为一种临床上广泛应用的有效的激光理疗手段。从2005年开始,邢达小组开始对LPu在较高激光通量（剂量）时的肿瘤细胞杀伤效应进行初步探讨。研究发现,高通量低功率激光照射（high fluencelow—power laser irradiation,HF—LPLI）通过激活内源光受体来触发线粒体氧应激,进而激活线粒体凋亡通路。该研究工作加深了对LPLI生物刺激效应分子机制的了解,为低功率激光治疗在临床应用时激光剂量的合理选择提供重要理论参考依据。与此同时,基于HF—LPLI有效杀死肿瘤细胞的效应,HF—LPLI可以作为一种潜在的、有效的临床肿瘤治疗手段。     

Morphological evaluation of sperm from infertile men selected by magnetic activated cell sorting (MACS)

Electron microscopy analysis performed in five infertile human subjects after sperm selection by swim-up followed by magnetic activated cell sorting (MACS) demonstrated a decrease in the number of spermatozoa with characteristics compatible with cell death. However, no significant differences were found when the swim-up/MACS semen fraction was compared with swim-up fraction alone.