Carbon balances of bioenergy systems using biomass from forests managed with long rotations: bridging the gap between stand and landscape assessments

Studies report different findings concerning the climate benefits of bioenergy, in part due to varying scope and use of different approaches to define spatial and temporal system boundaries. We quantify carbon balances for bioenergy systems that use biomass from forests managed with long rotations, employing different approaches and boundary conditions. Two approaches to represent landscapes and quantify their carbon balances – expanding vs. constant spatial boundaries – are compared. We show that for a conceptual forest landscape, constructed by combining a series of time‐shifted forest stands, the two approaches sometimes yield different results. We argue that the approach that uses constant spatial boundaries is preferable because it captures all carbon flows in the landscape throughout the accounting period. The approach that uses expanding system boundaries fails to accurately describe the carbon fluxes in the landscape due to incomplete coverage of carbon flows and influence of the stand‐level dynamics, which in turn arise from the way temporal system boundaries are defined on the stand level. Modelling of profit‐driven forest management using location‐specific forest data shows that the implications for carbon balance of management changes across the landscape (which are partly neglected when expanding system boundaries are used) depend on many factors such as forest structure and forest owners’ expectations of market development for bioenergy and other wood products. Assessments should not consider forest‐based bioenergy in isolation but should ideally consider all forest products and how forest management planning as a whole is affected by bioenergy incentives – and how this in turn affects carbon balances in forest landscapes and forest product pools. Due to uncertainties, we modelled several alternative scenarios for forest products markets. We recommend that future work consider alternative scenarios for other critical factors, such as policy options and energy technology pathways.     

A suite of ecological indicators for evaluating the integrity of structural eco-complexity in Mexican forests

This paper presents a conceptual framework for analyzing forest complexity as the combination of the variety of species and key structures that are associated with the composition, structure, and function of forest stands. Several spatial indicators have been developed to characterize the biodiversity, the structural complexity, and anthropogenic effects that can be observed in Mexican forests. By integrating several stand complexity attributes, the forest condition can be characterized as a function of species composition, stand structural attributes, and forest development. In addition, indicators of anthropogenic effects were also analyzed to identify their influence on forest eco-complexity, and therefore, on the current condition of forests. The results of applying this conceptual framework showed that Mexican forest are ecologically complex, with varying levels of anthropogenic impacts that modify the structural forest characteristics, particularly in tropical forests. The main factor explaining the current eco-complexity condition in tropical forests was associated with early stages of forest development, due to ecological degradation, and showed a generalized loss of attributes, particularly for stand complexity and stand development. In contrast, temperate forests exhibited better eco-complexity conditions, especially for those attributes that define forest stand occupancy and development. Mining activities, forest extraction as selective harvesting, forest fires, land use change, and road openings are critical human activities that directly affect forest structure and, ultimately, modify forest eco-complexity and integrity. This eco-complexity index derived for Mexican forests can be used to integrate measures of forest structure and functioning, and thereby better inform decision making and policy development.     

Quantitatively defining the conservation status of Natura 2000 forest habitats and improving management options for enhancing biodiversity

The main goal of Natura 2000 network is to guarantee the favourable conservation status of habitats and species ensuring European biodiversity. As a result, certain forest areas have been included in this network listed as 9230-Quercus pyrenaica habitat and 9340-Quercus ilex subsp. rotundifolia forest habitat. These areas were previously used for firewood extraction or livestock grazing and browsing. Nowadays these habitats are coppice forests with asexual regeneration, which is far from the desired conservation status. Traditional timber harvesting plans do not take account of the new objectives required for these Natura sites, which attempt to ensure biodiversity and recreational uses instead of simply focusing on timber production. This paper proposes a flexible methodology (applied to the study area “Dehesa Boyal” in ávila, Spain) for managing Natura 2000 forest sites by stands for sustainable forest management and the new requirements. The methodology has two phases. The first, “Division of the forest area into stands”, defines homogeneous patches of vegetation distinct in species composition, physiognomic structure and future management. The second, “Conservation status assessment of stands”, quantifies the conservation status of each previously classified stand considering a series of factors such as: functional health, restoration, floral richness and structure. A total value integrating the conservation status of stands is then calculated for the habitat. Both phases use Geographic Information System tools for managing information and visualizing results. The proposed methodology provides forest managers with a good knowledge of the territory and subsequently enables them to take appropriate conservation measures to maintain biodiversity.     

Long-term prediction of the dynamics of age-class and species composition of forests

This paper considers an approach to the long-term prediction of the age-class and species composition of forests based on mathematical modeling of the biological processes of stand growth and development, forest destruction under adverse environmental factors, natural reforestation on temporarily unstocked forest lands, and the use and reproduction of forest resources.     

Stand Structure and Recent Climate Change Constrain Stand Basal Area Change in European Forests: A Comparison Across Boreal,Temperate, and Mediterranean Biomes

European forests have a prominent role in the global carbon cycle and an increase in carbon storage has been consistently reported during the twentieth century. Any further increase in forest carbon storage, however, could be hampered by increases in aridity and extreme climatic events. Here, we use forest inventory data to identify the relative importance of stand structure (stand basal area and mean d.b.h.), mean climate (water availability), and recent climate change (temperature and precipitation anomalies) on forest basal area change during the late twentieth century in three major European biomes. Using linear mixed-effects models we observed that stand structure, mean climate, and recent climatic change strongly interact to modulate basal area change. Although we observed a net increment in stand basal area during the late twentieth century, we found the highest basal area increments in forests with medium stand basal areas and small to medium-sized trees. Stand basal area increases correlated positively with water availability and were enhanced in warmer areas. Recent climatic warming caused an increase in stand basal area, but this increase was offset by water availability. Based on recent trends in basal area change, we conclude that the potential rate of aboveground carbon accumulation in European forests strongly depends on both stand structure and concomitant climate warming, adding weight to suggestions that European carbon stocks may saturate in the near future.     

Persistent and pervasive compositional shifts of western boreal forest plots in Canada

Species compositional shifts have important consequences to biodiversity and ecosystem function and services to humanity. In boreal forests, compositional shifts from late‐successional conifers to early‐successional conifers and deciduous broadleaves have been postulated based on increased fire frequency associated with climate change truncating stand age‐dependent succession. However, little is known about how climate change has affected forest composition in the background between successive catastrophic fires in boreal forests. Using 1797 permanent sample plots from western boreal forests of Canada measured from 1958 to 2013, we show that after accounting for stand age‐dependent succession, the relative abundances of early‐successional deciduous broadleaves and early‐successional conifers have increased at the expense of late‐successional conifers with climate change. These background compositional shifts are persistent temporally, consistent across all forest stand ages and pervasive spatially across the region. Rising atmospheric CO₂ promoted early‐successional conifers and deciduous broadleaves, and warming increased early‐successional conifers at the expense of late‐successional conifers, but compositional shifts were not associated with climate moisture index. Our results emphasize the importance of climate change on background compositional shifts in the boreal forest and suggest further compositional shifts as rising CO₂ and warming will continue in the 21st century.     

Higher climate warming sensitivity of Siberian larch in small than large forest islands in the fragmented Mongolian forest steppe

Forest fragmentation has been found to affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in multiple ways. We asked whether forest size and isolation in fragmented woodlands influences the climate warming sensitivity of tree growth in the southern boreal forest of the Mongolian Larix sibirica forest steppe, a naturally fragmented woodland embedded in grassland, which is highly affected by warming, drought, and increasing anthropogenic forest destruction in recent time. We examined the influence of stand size and stand isolation on the growth performance of larch in forests of four different size classes located in a woodland‐dominated forest‐steppe area and small forest patches in a grassland‐dominated area. We found increasing climate sensitivity and decreasing first‐order autocorrelation of annual stemwood increment with decreasing stand size. Stemwood increment increased with previous year's June and August precipitation in the three smallest forest size classes, but not in the largest forests. In the grassland‐dominated area, the tree growth dependence on summer rainfall was highest. Missing ring frequency has strongly increased since the 1970s in small, but not in large forests. In the grassland‐dominated area, the increase was much greater than in the forest‐dominated landscape. Forest regeneration decreased with decreasing stand size and was scarce or absent in the smallest forests. Our results suggest that the larch trees in small and isolated forest patches are far more susceptible to climate warming than in large continuous forests pointing to a grim future for the forests in this strongly warming region of the boreal forest that is also under high land use pressure.     

辽西油松林水土保持效益评价

利用101块样地的调查资料,采用综合因子评价方法评价了辽西油松水土保持林的生态效益,把辽西油松水土保持林划分为低效、较低效、中效、较高效、高效五个等级：其中牛河梁地区的油松人工林大都为低效林,欺天林场的油松人工林大都为中效林,南刘杖子林场的天然次生林大都为高效林。这一研究结果将为辽西油松水土保持林生态系统管理提供重要的科学依据。     

Variation in Carbon Storage and Its Distribution by Stand Age and Forest Type in Boreal and Temperate Forests in Northeastern China

The northeastern forest region of China is an important component of total temperate and boreal forests in the northern hemisphere. But how carbon (C) pool size and distribution varies among tree, understory, forest floor and soil components, and across stand ages remains unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we selected three major temperate and two major boreal forest types in northeastern (NE) China. Within both forest zones, we focused on four stand age classes (young, mid-aged, mature and over-mature). Results showed that total C storage was greater in temperate than in boreal forests, and greater in older than in younger stands. Tree biomass C was the main C component, and its contribution to the total forest C storage increased with increasing stand age. It ranged from 27.7% in young to 62.8% in over-mature stands in boreal forests and from 26.5% in young to 72.8% in over-mature stands in temperate forests. Results from both forest zones thus confirm the large biomass C storage capacity of old-growth forests. Tree biomass C was influenced by forest zone, stand age, and forest type. Soil C contribution to total forest C storage ranged from 62.5% in young to 30.1% in over-mature stands in boreal and from 70.1% in young to 26.0% in over-mature in temperate forests. Thus soil C storage is a major C pool in forests of NE China. On the other hand, understory and forest floor C jointly contained less than 13% and <5%, in boreal and temperate forests respectively, and thus play a minor role in total forest C storage in NE China.     

Spatial Patterns and Predictors of Forest Carbon Stocks in Western Mediterranean

Mediterranean semi-arid forest ecosystems are especially sensitive to external forcing. An understanding of the relationship between forest carbon (C) stock, and environmental conditions and forest structure enable prediction of the impacts of climate change on C stocks and help to define management strategies that maximize the value of forests for C mitigation. Based on the national forest inventory of Spain (1997?C2008 with 70,912 plots), we estimated the forest C stock and spatial variability in Peninsular Spain and, we determined the extent to which the observed patterns of stand C stock can be explained by structural and species richness, climate and disturbances. Spain has an average stand C stock of 45.1?Mg C/ha. Total C stock in living biomass is 621 Tg C (7.8% of the C stock of European forests). The statistical models show that structural richness, which is driven by past land use and life forest history including age, development stage, management activities, and disturbance regime, is the main predictor of stand tree C stock with larger C stocks in structurally richer stands. Richness of broadleaf species has a positive effect on both conifer and broadleaf forests, whereas richness of conifer species shows no significant or even a negative effect on C stock. Climate variables have mainly an indirect effect through structural richness but a smaller direct predictive ability when all predictors are considered. To achieve a greater standing C stock, our results suggest promoting high structural richness by managing for uneven-aged stands and favoring broadleaf over conifer species.     

Long-term changes in bryophyte diversity of central European managed forests depending on site environmental features

Cryptogamic diversity is a reliable indicator of the state of forest ecosystems. In this study we analysed the variations in both bryophyte species richness overall and number of hemerophobic bryophyte species in Central European managed forests over a 20-year time span, based on data collected in 132 plots scattered across Poland. We tested differences in species richness among five temporal replicates, as well as among site types grouped based on elevation a.s.l., dominant tree species and stand age. The analyses revealed no significant trend in species richness across years. Meanwhile, species richness significantly increased along with elevation a.s.l., especially in broadleaved forests. No significant difference in species number between spruce and pine dominated stands emerged for mature stands, while there was a strong difference for young stands, with spruce forest hosting a much higher number of species. Species richness exhibited a slight, but not significant, increase over time in broadleaved forests, no significant variations in pine dominated stands and significant fluctuations in spruce dominated stands, yet without a significant trend. Out of the tested drivers, dominant tree species exhibited the strongest impact on species community composition. Number of hemerophobic and strongly hemerophobic species did not undergo significant variations across years either. The lack of bryophyte diversity trends highlighted in this study suggests Central European managed forests are in an equilibrium sate, maintained by the opposing effects of climate changes, on one side and of more sustainable forest management and pollutant deposition decline, from the other.

     

甘肃省森林碳储量现状与固碳速率

针对森林碳平衡再评估的重要性和区域尺度森林生态系统碳库量化分配的不确定性, 该研究依据全国森林资源连续清查结果中甘肃省各森林类型分布的面积与蓄积比重以及林龄和起源等要素, 在甘肃省布设212个样地, 经野外调查与采样、室内分析, 并对典型样地信息按照面积权重进行尺度扩展, 估算了甘肃省森林生态系统碳储量及其分布特征。结果表明: 甘肃省森林生态系统总碳储量为612.43 Tg C, 其中植被生物量碳为179.04 Tg C, 土壤碳为433.39 Tg C。天然林是甘肃省碳储量的主要贡献者, 其值为501.42 Tg C, 是人工林的4.52倍。天然林和人工林的植被碳密度均表现为随林龄的增加而增加的趋势, 同一龄组天然林植被碳密度高于人工林。天然林土壤碳密度从幼龄林到过熟林逐渐增加, 但人工林土壤碳密度最大值主要为近熟林。全省森林植被碳密度均值为72.43 Mg C·hm^-2, 天然林和人工林分别为90.52和33.79 Mg C·hm^-2。基于森林清查资料和标准样地实测数据, 估算出全省天然林和人工林在1996年的植被碳储量为132.47和12.81 Tg C, 2011年分别为152.41和26.63 Tg C, 平均固碳速率分别为1.33和0.92 Tg C·a^-1。甘肃省幼、中龄林面积比重较大, 占全省的62.28%, 根据碳密度随林龄的动态变化特征, 预测这些低龄林将发挥巨大的碳汇潜力。     

Influence of land use history on seed banks in European temperate forest ecosystems: a review

This study summarises European research on seed banks in temperate forest systems and analyses for differences in seed bank composition between geographically scattered forests with a different land use history. Special attention is given to seed bank characteristics of ancient forest species. Results of Detrended Correspondence Analysis suggest that historical land use is a key factor in determining the seed bank composition. Particularly seed banks of forests on former heathland sites differ from seed banks of ancient forest due to a high contribution of early successional species. The effect of former land use decreases after 50 yr, due to seed senescence. Total seed density decreases with recent forest age. Seed bank composition of eastern European forests is different from northern or western European forests, a difference which is mainly caused by species with a higher Ellenberg indicator value for continentality, temperature and reaction. In general, ancient forest species are poorly represented. Only a limited number is mentioned to have a persistent seed bank, and their densities are relatively low, which means that restoration of typical ancient forest vegetation can not rely on the seed bank. However, there is still a considerable lack of knowledge concerning seed bank and germination characteristics of forest species.     

近自然毛竹林空间结构动态变化

2009年7月在浙江省天目山国家级自然保护区,建立了1块100 m×100 m的近自然毛竹林固定标准地,采用相邻网格法进行每竹调查,利用全站仪测量毛竹的三维坐标(X,Y,Z),结合2010—2012年的3次毛竹复查数据,利用角尺度、大小比数和年龄隔离度3个结构指数,分析毛竹林空间结构的动态特征。结果表明:天目山近自然毛竹林大小年现象明显,平均胸径逐年增加;空间分布格局特征表现为2009、2012年毛竹林呈随机分布,2010、2011年毛竹林呈聚集分布;各年份毛竹林角尺度均服从左偏近似正态分布,且各年份的角尺度无显著性差异(P0.05);各年份毛竹林的平均大小比数均接近0.5,林分处于中庸状态;各年份毛竹林大小比数分布频率出现均衡分布特征,林分较稳定,且各年份间的大小比数无显著性差异;各年份毛竹林的年龄多样性及年龄隔离程度均较高;年龄隔离度逐年增加,毛竹小年向大年过渡期毛竹林年龄隔离度有显著性差异(P0.05),大年向小年的过渡期则无显著性差异。     

Where are Europe’s last primary forests?

Aim

Primary forests have high conservation value but are rare in Europe due to historic land use. Yet many primary forest patches remain unmapped, and it is unclear to what extent they are effectively protected. Our aim was to (1) compile the most comprehensive European‐scale map of currently known primary forests, (2) analyse the spatial determinants characterizing their location and (3) locate areas where so far unmapped primary forests likely occur.

Location

Europe.

Methods

We aggregated data from a literature review, online questionnaires and 32 datasets of primary forests. We used boosted regression trees to explore which biophysical, socio‐economic and forest‐related variables explain the current distribution of primary forests. Finally, we predicted and mapped the relative likelihood of primary forest occurrence at a 1‐km resolution across Europe.

Results

Data on primary forests were frequently incomplete or inconsistent among countries. Known primary forests covered 1.4 Mha in 32 countries (0.7% of Europe’s forest area). Most of these forests were protected (89%), but only 46% of them strictly. Primary forests mostly occurred in mountain and boreal areas and were unevenly distributed across countries, biogeographical regions and forest types. Unmapped primary forests likely occur in the least accessible and populated areas, where forests cover a greater share of land, but wood demand historically has been low.

Main conclusions

Despite their outstanding conservation value, primary forests are rare and their current distribution is the result of centuries of land use and forest management. The conservation outlook for primary forests is uncertain as many are not strictly protected and most are small and fragmented, making them prone to extinction debt and human disturbance. Predicting where unmapped primary forests likely occur could guide conservation efforts, especially in Eastern Europe where large areas of primary forest still exist but are being lost at an alarming pace.     

Transitional forestry in New Zealand: re-evaluating the design and management of forest systems through the lens of forest purpose

Forestry management worldwide has become increasingly effective at obtaining high timber yields from productive forests. In New Zealand, a focus on improving an increasingly successful and largely Pinus radiata plantation forestry model over the last 150 years has resulted in some of the most productive timber forests in the temperate zone. In contrast to this success, the full range of forested landscapes across New Zealand, including native forests, are impacted by an array of pressures from introduced pests, diseases, and a changing climate, presenting a collective risk of losses in biological, social and economic value. As the national government policies incentivise reforestation and afforestation, the social acceptability of some forms of newly planted forests is also being challenged. Here, we review relevant literature in the area of integrated forest landscape management to optimise forests as nature-based solutions, presenting ‘transitional forestry’ as a model design and management paradigm appropriate to a range of forest types, where forest purpose is placed at the heart of decision making. We use New Zealand as a case study region, describing how this purpose-led transitional forestry model can benefit a cross section of forest types, from industrialised forest plantations to dedicated conservation forests and a range of multiple-purpose forests in between. Transitional forestry is an ongoing multi-decade process of change from current ‘business-as-usual’ forest management to future systems of forest management, embedded across a continuum of forest types. This holistic framework incorporates elements to enhance efficiencies of timber production, improve overall forest landscape resilience, and reduce some potential negative environmental impacts of commercial plantation forestry, while allowing the ecosystem functioning of commercial and non-commercial forests to be maximised, with increased public and biodiversity conservation value. Implementation of transitional forestry addresses tensions that arise between meeting climate mitigation targets and improving biodiversity criteria through afforestation, alongside increasing demand for forest biomass feedstocks to meet the demands of near-term bioenergy and bioeconomy goals. As ambitious government international targets are set for reforestation and afforestation using both native and exotic species, there is an increasing opportunity to make such transitions via integrated thinking that optimises forest values across a continuum of forest types, while embracing the diversity of ways in which such targets can be reached.     

Management of ecosystem services in mountain forests: Review of indicators and value functions for model based multi-criteria decision analysis

The main ecosystem services (ES) central European mountain forests provide are: protection against gravitational hazards, timber production, recreation, biodiversity conservation and carbon storage, which are all in high demand. These demands make managing mountain forests a challenging task, involving manifold synergies and conflicts between the different ES. There is therefore an urgent need for appropriate concepts and tools for support decisions in forest management and planning (FMP) to take into consideration all ES and to manage the wide variety of information types, parameters and uncertainties involved in assessing the sustainability of ES. Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) provides a suitable set of methods for sustainability evaluations. In this study sustainability means the persistent fulfilment of the required ES. To address all the phases of the FMP process, MCDA and forest models should be applied together, with indicators providing the main interfaces to combine them. This paper aims to: i) review assessment approaches in order to select appropriate and widely accepted indicators for measuring and assessing the effects of different silvicultural management alternatives on forest ES, and ii) present additional standardisation approaches (value functions) for each indicator. Standardisations are necessary to make the different ES comparable and to study synergies and trade-offs between different management objectives in MCDA. The main ES in central European mountain regions are considered, with a clear focus on those indicators that are directly derivable from forest model outputs and that can refer to sustainable forest management practices. The scales considered are that of the single forest stand and of the larger forest management unit. A holistic indicator-based analysis framework for FMP in mountain forests can be built using the indicators and value functions described. The influence of different management alternatives on ES can then be evaluated, taking into consideration the instruments and information on forest management (forest models, inventory) available. All indicators are selected according to existing and approved approaches that only require data that is normally available in operational forest management. The framework can thus be an important element in developing a decision support system for FMP in mountain forests.     

An Approach to the Identification of Indicators for Forest Biodiversity—The Solling Mountains (NW Germany) as an Example

In this study, we present an approach for the identification of indicators for biodiversity within forest ecosystems. We analyze the data of stands of pure Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), as well as mixed P. abies–F. sylvatica forests in the Solling mountains (NW Germany). The analysis is based on 683 vegetation samples in total. For different plant groups, that is, vascular plants, bryophytes, Red List species, we investigate species numbers as a parameter of biodiversity. Species numbers are differentiated into three classes to describe low to high diversity. Plots are separately examined for the three different forest types. In order to take the species–area relationship into account, we only use relevés with a plot size of 100 m². Our approach focuses on the probability to be in a defined range of species numbers, that is, class, if a certain species occurs. For the purpose of facilitating the differentiation of the classes, we use the presence values of species in the classes for further characterization of indicators. Few indicators were found for the low ranges of species numbers. In addition, there were only a small number of species groups and stand types having indicators for all three classes. Various species have multiple indicator functions, e.g., with regard to the investigated species groups. The focus on a few of these multi‐indicators allows a rapid assessment of forest biodiversity. The catalog of indicators resulting from the investigation helps to facilitate and accelerate biodiversity evaluations of forest stands, in particular with regard to nature conservation and the restoration of natural forests.     

Forest and substrate type drive bryophyte distribution in the Alps

Understanding the main factors driving bryophyte communities in forests is a worthwhile research area as it provides a framework within which to evaluate effective management options. Previous studies elucidated the role of forest structure, substrate, and climate, but their effect in a wide environmental context encompassing several types of forests is still unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of climate, stand structure, substrates (tree trunks, deadwood, forest floor), and different forest types for species richness, species composition, and cover of bryophytes. Seven different types of Alpine forests dominated by spruce, larch-stone pine, silver-fir, Scots pine, oak, beech, and alder were selected. Bryophytes were sampled on tree trunks, deadwood, and forest floor. The importance of forest type, substrate, climate, and forest structure was determined by variance partitioning. Species richness and species composition were best explained by substrate (respectively 13% and 11%) and by forest type (respectively 13% and 11%). The bryophyte cover was primarily explained by the forest type (24%), and to a lesser extent by the climatic factors and stand structure. Overall, these results suggest that in this region ecologically based forest management might focus their efforts in protecting all the forest types and associated substrates. This means that forests of less economic value should also be preserved, and that acceptable silvicultural options should pay attention to the naturally available substrates. Too often, deadwood availability was a limiting substrate for bryophytes.