Combining α - and β -diversity models to fill gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity

For many taxonomic groups, sparse information on the spatial distribution of biodiversity limits our capacity to answer a variety of theoretical and applied ecological questions. Modelling community-level attributes (α- and β-diversity) over space can help overcome this shortfall in our knowledge, yet individually, predictions of α- or β-diversity have their limitations. In this study, we present a novel approach to combining models of α- and β-diversity, with sparse survey data, to predict the community composition for all sites in a region. We applied our new approach to predict land snail community composition across New Zealand. As we demonstrate, these predictions of metacommunity composition have diverse potential applications, including predicting γ-diversity for any set of sites, identifying target areas for conservation reserves, locating priority areas for future ecological surveys, generating realistic compositional data for metacommunity models and simultaneously predicting the distribution of all species in a taxon consistent with known community diversity patterns.     

Headwater biodiversity among different levels of stream habitat hierarchy

With the current loss of biodiversity and threats to freshwater ecosystems, it is crucial to identify hot-spots of biodiversity and on which spatial scale they can be resolved. Conservation and management of these important ecosystems needs insight into whether most of the regional biodiversity (i.e. γ-diversity) can be found locally (i.e. high α-diversity) or whether it is distributed across the region (i.e. high β-diversity). Biodiversity patterns of benthic macroinvertebrates and diatoms were studied in 30 headwater streams in five Swedish catchments by comparing the relative contribution of α- and β-diversity to γ-diversity between two levels of stream habitat hierarchy (catchment and region level). The relationship between species community structure and local environmental factors was also assessed. Our results show that both α- and β-diversity made a significant contribution to γ-diversity. β-diversity remained relatively constant between the two levels of habitat hierarchy even though local environmental control of the biota decreased from the catchment to the region level. To capture most of headwater γ-diversity, management should therefore target sites that are locally diverse, but at the same time select sites so that β-diversity is maximized. As environmental control of the biota peaked at the catchment level, the conservation of headwater stream diversity is likely to be most effective when management targets environmental conditions across multiple local sites within relatively small catchments.     

Effects of area,environmental status and environmental variation on species richness per unit area in Mediterranean wetlands

Abstract. We propose a mechanistic model to relate α- and γ-diversity to area per se, moisture status and environmental variation (local and total), and explored the effects these abiotic variables have on species richness per unit area (α-diversity) for plant communities in a network of wetland habitats located in a Mediterranean mountainous region of central Spain. In this study, environmental status is measured as actual evapotranspiration (as an expression of energy), slope and soil wetness, and environmental variation refers to slope variation and soil wetness variation. Species richness per unit area was related to soil wetness, soil wetness variation, ground slope and ground slope variation. There were also positive correlations among moisture status and environmental variation variables. There is a joint effect of slope and soil wetness variation in explaining species richness per unit area of these wetland habitats, but area effects and energy are relatively unimportant. We conclude that species richness per unit area of wetland vegetation can be explained by moisture status and local environmental variation, and that habitat area may not have an important effect. Area could affect γ-diversity directly through random sampling and/or indirectly through increasing β-diversity, and energy may be important in areas with larger energy ranges. Complete surveys of environmental status, local and total environmental variation, and their associated species assemblages are needed to explain the processes that give rise to the rule that larger areas have larger species richness.     

Soil biota diversity and plant diversity both contributed to ecosystem stability in grasslands

Understanding the effects of diversity on ecosystem stability in the context of global change has become an important goal of recent ecological research. However, the effects of diversity at multiple scales and trophic levels on ecosystem stability across environmental gradients remain unclear. Here, we conducted a field survey of α-, β-, and γ-diversity of plants and soil biota (bacteria, fungi, and nematodes) and estimated the temporal ecosystem stability of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in 132 plots on the Mongolian Plateau. After climate and soil environmental variables were controlled for, both the α- and β-diversity of plants and soil biota (mainly via nematodes) together with precipitation explained most variation in ecosystem stability. These findings evidence that the diversity of both soil biota and plants contributes to ecosystem stability. Model predictions of the future effects of global changes on terrestrial ecosystem stability will require field observations of diversity of both plants and soil biota.     

Resolving early Mid-Ordovician (Kundan) bioevents in the East Baltic based on brachiopods

Bed-by-bed sampling of brachiopods from selected Kundan Stage localities in the East Baltic has permitted the construction of α-diversity curves, unprecedented in detail from this particular stage and region. These α-diversity curves can be correlated between the investigated sections, along an east to west transect of some 200 km and indicate bioevents associated with intervals of increased palaeo-water depth. The highest peaks in α-diversity occur when biofacies analysis and sedimentological evidence indicate drowning events. The events involve mainly taxa endemic to the Baltic province at this time and thus, the radiation proceeded by a modest expansion of the brachiopod fauna into deeper-water environments, isolated at this time from major immigrations. In addition to increased α-diversity, β-diversity was signalled by new, deeper-water communities and the isolation of the province helped retain high values of γ-diversity.     

Patterns of diversity in the strata of boreal montane forest in British Columbia

Abstract. Patterns of diversity were analyzed in a boreal coniferous forest and its strata (tree, shrub, herb and bryophyte layers): number of species per community — α-diversity, total species richness — γ-diversity, mean similarity — β-diversity, and mosaic diversity, a measure of complexity. These four measures of diversity consistently decreased from lower to upper vegetation layers. To study the effect of juveniles of larger life forms on diversity of lower layers, they were removed from the data and the measures of diversity reanalyzed. Number of species per community and mosaic diversity decreased substantially, but β-diversity did not change. So, the effect of juveniles on γ-diversity is due to the greater number of species per community. Multiple regression models revealed that the relationships between α-diversity and the environmental variables were the same for the whole forest and for the herb layer. Elevation and soil pH were the major variables explaining α-diversity in the whole community. Climate was the only environmental gradient related to species richness in all individual strata. Tree and herb richness values were negatively related to soil drainage and acidity, respectively. Species richness of the plant community was affected by environmental variability mostly through the herb layer. Various explanations of the observed diversity patterns included: environmental constraints, resource competition, generation time, and colonization processes.     

样本量不一致时的β多样性计算

度量样方间物种组成的差异, 即β多样性, 是生态学研究中的常用手段。在开展生态学研究的过程中, 不同样方获取的样本量通常不同。使用物种稀疏曲线可以计算不同样本量的α多样性, 但常用的β多样性指数的计算却没有考虑样本量的差异。本文主要介绍了从稀疏曲线演化而来的可以计算不同样本量的β多样性指数——预期共享物种数(expected species shared, ESS)及其标准化后的指数, 其中详细介绍了弦标准化的预期共享物种数(chord-normalized expected species shared, CNESS)。利用真实采集的数据集, 本文演示了在不同样本参数m下, CNESS经过主坐标分析(principal coordinates analysis, PCoA)的二维排序结果, 并比较了样本量变化后, CNESS与基于多度的Chao-Jaccard相异性指数之间的差异。模拟结果表明, CNESS指数与Chao-Jaccard指数的PCoA结果具有相关性, 该相关性不随m值的变化而变化。CNESS指数较Chao-Jaccard指数具有更多优势, 通过调节样本参数m, CNESS的结果可以分析优势种或者稀有种的物种组成差异, 同时CNESS指数对样本量不敏感。ESS系列相异指数是基于物种多度的计算, 适用于样本量不一致时的β多样性研究, 建议在开展昆虫等无脊椎动物的生态学研究中使用此指数。为了更加准确地获得样方之间的物种组成差异, 在数据分析的过程中应选取不同大小的m值计算CNESS。然而, 由于样本量小于特定m值的样方会在计算中被剔除, 因此, 在实际的取样工作中, 每个样方都应该尽量采集到足够多的个体, 才能保证在m值足够大的时候也不丢失样方信息。     

Patterns of bryophyte associations at different scales in a Norwegian boreal spruce forest

Abstract. Patterns of associations between 36 bryophytes and their relationships with trends in α- and β-diversity were studied at five spatial scales (from 1 m² to 1/256 m²) in a Norwegian boreal spruce forest. The range and dispersion of α-diversity values in the data were significantly higher than in comparable model data sets, indicating varation from favourable to unfavourable conditions for bryophytes at all scales, particularly with increasing cover of the upper layers. The number of positive associations was significantly higher than predicted from a random distribution, for all sample plot sizes except the smallest. For the most frequent species, this number decreased with decreasing sample plot size. The excess of positive associations was due to the presence of (1) α-diversity trends, as demonstrated by a stochastic simulation, and (2) β-diversity (variation along environmental gradients). A microscale coenocline from dominance of large forest floor mosses to small liverworts, is added to two broad-scale coenoclines demonstrated earlier. Facilitation - positive density-dependence caused by more favourable moisture conditions within dense stands - is discussed as a possible third cause of excess positive associations. The number of significant negative associations was generally low, and deviated neither from theoretical values assuming random distribution of species, nor from predicted values accounting for α-diversity trends. The low proportion of negative associations, even in the presence of β-diversity trends, suggests that interspecific competition is not important in this vegetation. Several alternatives to competition are discussed; (1) static mechanisms for avoidance of competition, (2) mobility, and (3) the importance of density-independent mortality, in particular due to fine-scale disturbance. Simulation studies for assessing the effects of α-diversity trends on species associations are emphasized.     

Enhancing the structural diversity between forest patches—A concept and real-world experiment to study biodiversity,multifunctionality and forest resilience across spatial scales

Intensification of land use by humans has led to a homogenization of landscapes and decreasing resilience of ecosystems globally due to a loss of biodiversity, including the majority of forests. Biodiversity–ecosystem functioning (BEF) research has provided compelling evidence for a positive effect of biodiversity on ecosystem functions and services at the local (α-diversity) scale, but we largely lack empirical evidence on how the loss of between-patch β-diversity affects biodiversity and multifunctionality at the landscape scale (γ-diversity). Here, we present a novel concept and experimental framework for elucidating BEF patterns at α-, β-, and γ-scales in real landscapes at a forest management-relevant scale. We examine this framework using 22 temperate broadleaf production forests, dominated by Fagus sylvatica. In 11 of these forests, we manipulated the structure between forest patches by increasing variation in canopy cover and deadwood. We hypothesized that an increase in landscape heterogeneity would enhance the β-diversity of different trophic levels, as well as the β-functionality of various ecosystem functions. We will develop a new statistical framework for BEF studies extending across scales and incorporating biodiversity measures from taxonomic to functional to phylogenetic diversity using Hill numbers. We will further expand the Hill number concept to multifunctionality allowing the decomposition of γ-multifunctionality into α- and β-components. Combining this analytic framework with our experimental data will allow us to test how an increase in between patch heterogeneity affects biodiversity and multifunctionality across spatial scales and trophic levels to help inform and improve forest resilience under climate change. Such an integrative concept for biodiversity and functionality, including spatial scales and multiple aspects of diversity and multifunctionality as well as physical and environmental structure in forests, will go far beyond the current widely applied approach in forestry to increase resilience of future forests through the manipulation of tree species composition.     

Contrasting diversity patterns of soil mites and nematodes in secondary succession

Soil biodiversity has been recognized as a key feature of ecosystem functioning and stability. However, soil biodiversity is strongly impaired by agriculture and relatively little is known on how and at what spatial and temporal scales soil biodiversity is restored after the human disturbances have come to an end. Here, a multi-scale approach was used to compare diversity patterns of soil mites and nematodes at four stages (early, mid, late, reference site) along a secondary succession chronosequence from abandoned arable land to heath land. In each field four soil samples were taken during four successive seasons. We determined soil diversity within samples (α-diversity), between samples (β-diversity) and within field sites (γ-diversity). The patterns of α- and γ-diversity developed similarly along the chronosequence for oribatid mites, but not for nematodes. Nematode α-diversity was highest in mid- and late-successional sites, while γ-diversity was constant along the chronosequence. Oribatid mite β-diversity was initially high, but decreased thereafter, whereas nematode β-diversity increased when succession proceeded; indicating that patterns of within-site heterogeneity diverged for oribatid mites and nematodes. The spatio-temporal diversity patterns after land abandonment suggest that oribatid mite community development depends predominantly on colonization of new taxa, whereas nematode community development depends on shifts in dominance patterns. This would imply that at old fields diversity patterns of oribatid mites are mainly controlled by dispersal, whereas diversity patterns of nematodes are mainly controlled by changing abiotic or biotic soil conditions. Our study shows that the restoration of soil biodiversity along secondary successional gradients can be both scale- and phylum-dependent.     

FREQUENCY,DIVERSITY AND ECOLOGICAL STRATEGIES OF EPIPHYTIC LICHENS IN THE SWISS CENTRAL PLATEAU AND THE PRE-ALPS

To identify representative quantitative criteria for the creation of a future Red List of epiphytic lichens, 849 trees in 132 long-term ecological observation plots in the Swiss Central Plateau and the Pre-Alps were surveyed by standard sampling. Based on the trees, frequency data of the lichen taxa observed are described by the log series model, indicating the controlling effect of few ecological factors. Based on the plots, four classes of scarcity, each comprising 25% of the species, were established. As a contribution to the development of a national, representative survey of lichens, α-diversity (species richness, species density) andβ-diversity (dissimilarity) were calculated in terms of region, vegetation formation, vegetation belt and for their combinations. Differences in lichen diversity between the Central Plateau and the Pre-Alps were caused by the bigger elevational range in the Pre-Alps, which resulted in a higher species richness. α-Diversity of forest and non-forest were similar, whereas each vegetation formation showed one third of its species restricted to it. The contributions to the total lichen diversity of crustose, foliose and fruticose as well as of generative and vegetative species was calculated. Specific features along the altitudinal gradient of vegetation belts emerged: the percentage of crustose and generative lichens declined with every altitudinal step, increased in fruticose and vegetative lichens, and was the same in foliose species.     

Species diversity in spatial and temporal dimensions of fruit-feeding butterflies from two Ecuadorian rainforests

To test the hypotheses that butterflies in an intact lowland rainforest are randomly distributed in space and time, a guild of nymphalid butterflies was sampled at monthly intervals for one year by trapping 883 individuals of 91 species in the canopy and understory of four contiguous, intact forest plots and one naturally occurring lake edge. The overall species abundance distribution was well described by a log-normal distribution. Total species diversity (γ-diversity) was partitioned into additive components within and among community subdivisions (α-diversity and β-diversity) in vertical, horizontal and temporal dimensions. Although community subdivisions showed high similarity (l-β-diversity/γ-diversity), significant β-diversity existed in each dimension. Individual abundance and observed species richness were lower in the canopy man in the understory, but rarefaction analysis suggested that the underlying species richness was similar in both canopy and understory. Observed species richness varied among four contiguous forest plots, and was lowest in the lake edge plot. Rarefaction and species accumulation curves showed that one forest plot and the lake edge had significantly lower species richness than other forest plots. Within any given month, only a small fraction of total sample species richness was represented by a single plot and height (canopy or understory). Comparison of this study to a similar one done in disturbed forest showed diat butterfly diversity at a naturally occurring lake edge differed strongly from a pasture-forest edge. Further comparison showed that species abundance distributions from intact and disturbed forest areas had variances that differed significandy, suggesting mat in addition to extrapolation, rarefaction and species accumulation techniques, the shapes of species abundance distributions are fundamental to assessing diversity among sites. This study shows the necessity for long-term sampling of diverse communities in space and time to assess tropical insect diversity among different areas, and the need of such studies is discussed in relation to tropical ecology and quick surveys in conservation biology.     

Incorporating spatial autocorrelation in rarefaction methods: Implications for ecologists and conservation biologists

Recently, methods for constructing Spatially Explicit Rarefaction (SER) curves have been introduced in the scientific literature to describe the relation between the recorded species richness and sampling effort and taking into account for the spatial autocorrelation in the data. Despite these methodological advances, the use of SERs has not become routine and ecologists continue to use rarefaction methods that are not spatially explicit. Using two study cases from Italian vegetation surveys, we demonstrate that classic rarefaction methods that do not account for spatial structure can produce inaccurate results. Furthermore, our goal in this paper is to demonstrate how SERs can overcome the problem of spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of plant or animal communities. Our analyses demonstrate that using a spatially-explicit method for constructing rarefaction curves can substantially alter estimates of relative species richness. For both analyzed data sets, we found that the rank ordering of standardized species richness estimates was reversed between the two methods. We strongly advise the use of Spatially Explicit Rarefaction methods when analyzing biodiversity: the inclusion of spatial autocorrelation into rarefaction analyses can substantially alter conclusions and change the way we might prioritize or manage nature reserves.     

古田山10种主要森林群落类型的α和β多样性格局及影响因素

古田山国家级自然保护区地处中亚热带, 地形复杂, 森林群落类型丰富。我们在保护区内10种主要森林群落类型中网格化布置并调查了79个20 m × 20 m样地, 分析了不同群落类型内及相互间的α (Shannon-Wiener指数)、β (Horn-Morisita相异性指数)多样性分布格局及其影响因素。结果表明: (1) α多样性主要受到群落类型、海拔和坡向的影响。α多样性在不同群落类型间差异显著, 并且随海拔升高、坡向从南到北, α多样性增大。(2) β多样性主要受到群落类型和海拔的影响, 受空间距离的影响不显著。不同群落类型间的β多样性显著大于同一群落类型内部, 并且随海拔升高β多样性增大。总体而言, 群落类型和海拔是古田山森林群落α和β多样性的主要影响因子, 表明生境过滤等机制对该区域的森林物种多样性格局起着主要作用。     

PCR biases distort bacterial and archaeal community structure in pyrosequencing datasets

As 16S rRNA gene targeted massively parallel sequencing has become a common tool for microbial diversity investigations, numerous advances have been made to minimize the influence of sequencing and chimeric PCR artifacts through rigorous quality control measures. However, there has been little effort towards understanding the effect of multi-template PCR biases on microbial community structure. In this study, we used three bacterial and three archaeal mock communities consisting of, respectively, 33 bacterial and 24 archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences combined in different proportions to compare the influences of (1) sequencing depth, (2) sequencing artifacts (sequencing errors and chimeric PCR artifacts), and (3) biases in multi-template PCR, towards the interpretation of community structure in pyrosequencing datasets. We also assessed the influence of each of these three variables on α- and β-diversity metrics that rely on the number of OTUs alone (richness) and those that include both membership and the relative abundance of detected OTUs (diversity). As part of this study, we redesigned bacterial and archaeal primer sets that target the V3-V5 region of the 16S rRNA gene, along with multiplexing barcodes, to permit simultaneous sequencing of PCR products from the two domains. We conclude that the benefits of deeper sequencing efforts extend beyond greater OTU detection and result in higher precision in β-diversity analyses by reducing the variability between replicate libraries, despite the presence of more sequencing artifacts. Additionally, spurious OTUs resulting from sequencing errors have a significant impact on richness or shared-richness based α- and β-diversity metrics, whereas metrics that utilize community structure (including both richness and relative abundance of OTUs) are minimally affected by spurious OTUs. However, the greatest obstacle towards accurately evaluating community structure are the errors in estimated mean relative abundance of each detected OTU due to biases associated with multi-template PCR reactions.     

Habitat associations of an insular Wallacean avifauna: A multi-scale approach for biodiversity proxies

The endemic avifauna of Wallacea is of high conservation significance, but remains poorly studied. Identifying priority conservation areas requires a greater understanding of the habitat associations of these bird communities, and of how spatial scale of analysis can influence the interpretation of these associations. This study aims to determine which proxy habitat measures, at which spatial scales of analysis, can provide useful inferential data on the composition of Wallacean forest avifauna. Research was conducted within the Lambusango forest reserve, South-East Sulawesi, using point count surveys to sample avifauna. Habitat properties were characterised in three ways: broad classification of forest type, canopy remotely-sensed response derived from satellite imagery, and in situ measures of vegetation composition and structure. Furthermore, we examined avifauna–habitat relationships at three spatial scales: area (c.400 ha per sample site), transect (c.10 ha) and point (c.0.2 ha). Results demonstrate that broad forest type classifications at an area scale can help to determine conservation value, indicating that primary and old secondary forests are important for supporting many species with lower ecological tolerances, such as large-bodied frugivores. At the transect-scale, significant congruence occurs between bird community composition and several habitat variables derived from vegetation sampling and satellite imagery, particularly tree size, undergrowth density, and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values; this highlights the importance small scale habitat associations can have on determining α-diversity. Analysis at the point-scale was ineffective in providing proxy indications for avifauna. These findings should be considered when determining future priority conservation areas for Wallacean avifauna.     

退化高寒草甸狼毒发生区土壤真菌多样性的空间变异

狼毒是青藏高原危害最严重的毒草种类之一,其快速蔓延对高寒草甸生态系统的影响日益严重。选取祁连山中段退化高寒草甸为研究区,综合采用高通量测序技术、地统计学和GIS空间分析方法,分析狼毒发生区土壤真菌多样性的空间变异特征,研究狼毒群落与土壤真菌多样性的空间相关性。结果表明: 与非发生区相比,狼毒发生区土壤真菌群落物种丰富度下降而优势度显著增加,α多样性降低;土壤真菌群落物种构成差异增强,β多样性明显升高。狼毒入侵对土壤真菌多样性的空间格局有一定扰动,发生区各多样性指数的斑块破碎化程度增加,土壤真菌群落物种构成的空间异质性明显增强,α和β多样性的空间稳定性降低。狼毒盖度与土壤真菌α和β多样性指数呈现显著正相关及显著负相关的区域交错镶嵌分布,空间相关性规律不明显,表明狼毒入侵草甸土壤真菌多样性的空间变异可能受地上植被和土壤环境的共同作用。     

Impacts of oil palm plantations on changes in environmental heterogeneity and Heteroptera (Gerromorpha and Nepomorpha) diversity

This study evaluates the effects of oil palm plantations on environmental heterogeneity and diversity (α and β) of aquatic Heteroptera (semi-aquatic and aquatic species) in Amazon streams. We assessed eight streams located in forested areas and 12 in oil palm plantations. As expected, oil palm areas had lower environmental heterogeneity, despite the presence of riparian vegetation. Heteropteran communities differed in forest and oil palm areas, however, only semi-aquatic bugs were affected by environmental variables. Streams in oil palm plantations had lower α-diversity and distinct community structures when compared to forest sites. Oil palm plantation did not affect the β-diversity of semi-aquatic bugs, however, there was increased β-diversity of aquatic bugs in these areas. These results reflect the impacts of environmental heterogeneity generated by plantations next to riparian vegetation, inducing local diversity loss. Effects on β-diversity differed among groups of Heteroptera, mainly due to the differences in the life histories of each group. Semi-aquatic bugs seem to undergo environmental filtering, while aquatic bugs can be structured by limiting similarity. Thus, the management and land conservation strategies adopted to preserve ecosystems within oil palm plantations were insufficient for the protection of aquatic heteropteran communities. In summary, such conservation policies should account for the particularities of different groups of the aquatic ecosystem; especially for aquatic fauna, which are usually overlooked in conservation policies for the Brazilian Amazon.     

Searching for weed biocontrol agents—when to move on?

‘Classical’ biological control for an exotic weed requires time‐consuming and expensive surveys for natural enemies in the weed's native range. We advocate the use of rarefaction curves to improve survey efficiency, i.e. to determine the minimum sampling effort for discovering most of the potential control agents actually occurring in the weed's native range. Rarefaction (dilution) curves can be used to estimate the number of herbivore species expected on a given number of plants, at sampling sites or regions, using presence/absence data and species frequencies. An analysis of the shape of the rarefaction curves will therefore indicate (a) which sites possibly contain more undiscovered herbivore species and (b) whether sampling new sites is more likely to reveal further herbivores. This approach is illustrated with two case studies of insect surveys, of root and flower head feeders on Centaurea maculosa (Asteraceae) in Europe and for flower head feeders of various Asteraceae in Brazil. Finally, we consider consequences of combining this approach with focussed searches in the centre of endemism and propose a general survey protocol for natural enemies associated with a host plant in its native range.     

Spatial heterogeneity and habitat configuration overcome habitat composition influences on alpha and beta mammal diversity

The effects of habitat fragmentation on different taxa and ecosystems are subject to intense debate, and disentangling them is of utmost importance to support conservation and management strategies. We evaluated the importance of landscape composition and configuration, and spatial heterogeneity to explain α- and β-diversity of mammals across a gradient of percent woody cover and land use diversity. We expected species richness to be positively related to all predictive variables, with the strongest relationship with landscape composition and configuration, and spatial heterogeneity respectively. We also expected landscape to influence β-diversity in the same order of importance expected for species richness, with a stronger influence on nestedness due to deterministic loss of species more sensitive to habitat disturbance. We analyzed landscape structure using: (a) landscape metrics based on thematic maps and (b) image texture of a vegetation index. We compared a set of univariate explanatory models of species richness using AIC, and evaluated how dissimilarities in landscape composition and configuration and spatial heterogeneity affect β-diversity components using a Multiple Regression on distance Matrix. Contrary with our expectations, landscape configuration was the main driver of species richness, followed by spatial heterogeneity and last by landscape composition. Nestedness was explained, in order of importance, by spatial heterogeneity, landscape configuration, and landscape composition. Although conservation policies tend to focus mainly on habitat amount, we advocate that landscape management must include strategies to preserve and improve habitat quality and complexity in natural patches and the surrounding matrix, enabling landscapes to harbor high species diversity.