Different characteristics between menadione and menadione sodium bisulfite as redox mediator in yeast cell suspension

Menadione promoted the production of active oxygen species (AOS) in both yeast cell suspension and the crude enzymes from the cells, but menadione sodium bisulfite (MSB) had little effect on the production of AOS in the cell suspension. MSB kept the stable increase in the electron transfer from intact yeast cells to anode compared to menadione, but the electron transfer promoted by MSB was inhibited in permeabilized yeast cell suspension. Menadione promoted oxidation of NAD(P)H much faster than MSB in permeabilized yeast cell suspension, suggesting the oxidative stress due to consumption of NAD(P)H. The proliferation of yeast cells was inhibited by menadione under aerobic conditions rather than anaerobic conditions, and the inhibitory effect was reduced by superoxide dismutase and catalase. The effect of MSB on the proliferation was much smaller than that of menadione. The above facts suggest that harmless MSB promotes the electron transfer from plasma membrane of yeast cells to anode. On the other hand, harmful menadione might promote the electron transfer from cytosol and plasma membrane to anode and dissolved oxygen.     

Radiosensitization, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of a 2-nitroimidazole nucleoside (RA-263)

A 2-nitroimidazole nucleoside, 1-(2',3'-dideoxy-alpha-D-erythro-hex-2'-enopyranosyl)-2-nitroimida zole (RA-263), has been investigated for its radiosensitization, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity properties. The in vitro radiosensitization tests against hypoxic Chinese hamster (V-79) cells demonstrated that RA-263 was a more potent radiosensitizer than misonidazole and at 2 mM concentration approached the oxic curve. Significant in vitro radiosensitization activity was also observed in EMT6 mammary tumor cells. The in vitro cytotoxicity data suggested that RA-263 is considerably more toxic to hypoxic cells than misonidazole. The increased cytotoxicity may be related to its higher depletion of nonprotein thiols (NPSH) than misonidazole. The combined effects of radiosensitization and hypoxic cell toxicity were measured by preincubation of the V-79 cells for 4 h under hypoxic conditions before irradiation. The results demonstrated a synergistic response by causing a significant decrease in the extrapolation number with loss of shoulder of the radiation survival curves. The in vivo radiosensitization experiments conducted by the in vivo-in vitro cloning assay with the EMT6 mammary tumor indicate that RA-263 is an effective sensitizer. Pharmacokinetic data suggested that RA-263 was eliminated from plasma by a rapid alpha phase and a slower beta phase with T 1/2 of 36 and 72 min, respectively. The concentration in the brain was approximately one-sixth of tumor concentration, suggesting that RA-263 is excluded from the CNS. Moreover, RA-263 was two times less toxic than misonidazole on equimolar basis by acute LD50 tests. This agent was also significantly less mutagenic than misonidazole in a strain of Escherichia coli.     

Cellular NAD+ and ATP levels in alkylation-induced cytotoxicity enhanced by an inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis

Alkylating agents cause a marked depletion of cellular NAD+ levels by activating nuclear ADP-ribosyl transferase (ADPRT), which utilizes NAD+ as a substrate in the synthesis of poly(ADP-ribose). As a consequence of NAD+ depletion, it is possible that cellular ATP pools could be depleted. Because of this, exogenously supplied NAD+ had been proposed as a way to counteract some of the effects of an alkylator. We found that exogenously supplied NAD+ significantly increased intracellular levels of NAD+ in MMS- and MNNG-treated V79 Chinese hamster cells. Cytotoxicity was not changed by the exogenously supplied NAD+, however. 3-Aminobenzamide (3-ABA), an ADPRT inhibitor, prevented the depletion of intracellular NAD+ by MMS or MNNG treatment and potentiated cytotoxicity. As was the case without 3-ABA, exogenously supplied NAD+ plus 3-ABA did not change the cytotoxicity, even though NAD+ levels were increased. Intracellular ATP levels were also measured and were found to be unaffected following MMS treatment, and only slightly depleted following MNNG treatment. Exogenously supplied NAD+ raised these levels above those for their respective controls. Because survival was unaffected by elevated levels of NAD+ and ATP, our results suggest that depletion of cellular NAD+ pools following MMS and MNNG treatment is not a critical factor in determining cytotoxicity for these V79 cells. The energy reserves of V79 cells, at doses of MMS or MNNG which kill 99% of the cells, are apparently adequate to maintain normal levels of ATP.     

Hypoxia-selective radiosensitization of mammalian cells by nitracrine, an electron-affinic DNA intercalator

The radiosensitizing ability of the 1-nitroacridine nitracrine (NC) is of interest since it is an example of a DNA intercalating agent with an electron-affinic nitro group. NC radiosensitization was evaluated in Chinese hamster ovary cell (AA8) cultures at 4 degrees C in order to suppress the rapid metabolism and potent cytotoxicity of the drug. Under hypoxic conditions, submicromolar concentrations of NC resulted in sensitization (SER = 1.6 at 1 mumol dm-3). Sensitization was also seen under aerobic conditions but a concentration more than 10-fold higher was required. In aerobic cultures NC radiosensitization was independent of whether cells were exposed before and during, or after, irradiation. Postirradiation sensitization was not observed under hypoxic conditions. The time dependence of NC uptake and the development of radiosensitization were similar (maximal at 30 min at 4 degrees C under hypoxia) suggesting that sensitization, unlike cytotoxicity, is due to unmetabolized drug. NC is about 1700 times more potent as a radiosensitizer than misonidazole. This high potency is adequately accounted for by the electron affinity of NC (E(1) value at pH7 of -275 mV versus NHE) and by its accumulation in cells to give intracellular concentrations approximately 30 times greater than in the medium. However, concentrations of free NC appear to be low in AA8 cells, presumably because of DNA binding. If radiosensitization by NC is due to bound rather than free drug, it suggests that intercalated NC can interact very efficiently with DNA target radicals. This is despite a binding ratio in the cell estimated as less than 1 NC molecule/400 base pairs under conditions providing efficient sensitization. This work suggests a new approach in the search for more effective clinical radiosensitizers, and poses questions on the means by which intercalated drugs can interact with DNA damage.     

Stimulation of the pentose phosphate pathway and glutathione levels by dehydroascorbate, the oxidized form of vitamin C.

Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, generally functions as an antioxidant by directly reacting with reactive oxygen intermediates and has a vital role in defenses against oxidative stress. However, ascorbic acid also has pro-oxidant properties and may cause apoptosis of lymphoid and myeloid cells. The present study shows that dehydroascorbate, the oxidized form of vitamin C, stimulates the antioxidant defenses of cells, preferentially importing dehydroascorbate over ascorbate. While 200-800 microM vitamin C caused apoptosis of Jurkat and H9 human T lymphocytes, pretreatment with 200-1000 microM dehydroascorbate stimulated activity of pentose phosphate pathway enzymes glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and transaldolase, elevated intracellular glutathione levels, and inhibited H(2)O(2)-induced changes in mitochondrial transmembrane potential and cell death. A 3. 3-fold maximal glutathione elevation was observed after 48 h stimulation with 800 microM dehydroascorbate. In itself, dehydroascorbate did not affect cytosolic or mitochondrial reactive oxygen intermediate levels as monitored by flow cytometry using oxidation-sensitive fluorescent probes. The data reveal a novel mechanism for increasing glutathione levels through stimulation of the pentose phosphate pathway and identify dehydroascorbate as an antioxidant for cells susceptible to the pro-oxidant and proapoptotic properties of vitamin C.     

Radiation sensitization of mammalian cells by metal chelators

The cell cycle effects, alteration in radiation response, and inherent cytotoxicity of the metal chelators mimosine, desferrioxamine (DFO), N,N'-bis(o-hydroxybenzyl)-ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid (HBED), and deferiprone (L1) were studied in exponentially growing Chinese hamster V79 cells. Incubation of cells with 200-1000 microM mimosine for 12 h reduced clonogenic survival to 50-60%, while incubation for 24 h reduced survival further to 0.5%. Mimosine treatment resulted in cell cycle blocks at the G(1)/S-phase border and in S phase. Pulse labeling with 5-bromodeoxyuridine indicated that the S-phase cells ceased to actively replicate DNA after only 2 h of mimosine treatment and were unable to replicate DNA for extended periods. Treatment of V79 cells with 600 microM mimosine for 12 h resulted in radiosensitization, yielding a sensitizer enhancement ratio (SER) of 2.7 +/- 0.3 at the 10% survival level. To study the kinetics of the sensitization, V79 cells were incubated with mimosine for various times up to 12 h and irradiated with a single 10-Gy dose of X rays. It was found that the radiosensitization increased continually up to 8 h (from a 3- to a 100-fold difference in survival) and then reached a plateau after 8 h. Mimosine also equally radiosensitized human lung cancer cells having either a normal or mutated TP53 gene, suggesting a TP53-independent mechanism. To test whether iron binding by mimosine was responsible for the observed radiosensitization, additional experiments were performed using the iron chelators DFO, HBED and L1. V79 cells treated with 500 microM of these agents for 8 h followed by various doses of X rays gave SERs similar to that for mimosine (2.0-2.7). These studies indicate that metal chelators are potent radiosensitizers in V79 and human cells. Importantly, when the DFO was preloaded together with Fe(3+) [Fe(III)-DFO], the radiosensitizing effect was lost. These preliminary findings warrant further studies for the possible application of metal chelators as radiation sensitizers in radiation oncology.     

Cytotoxic effects of menadione on normal and cytochrome c-deficient yeast cells cultivated aerobically or anaerobically

Cytotoxic effects of menadione on normal and cytochrome c-deficient yeast cells were examined on the basis of the cell growth rate, NAD(P)H concentration, reactive oxygen production, plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase activity, and ethanol production. In aerobically or anaerobically cultured yeast cells, NAD(P)H concentration decreased with increasing concentration of menadione, and the recovery of NAD(P)H concentration was proportional to the cell growth rate. However, there was no relationship among the inhibition of the cell growth and reactive oxygen production, plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase activity, and ethanol production. Among them, ethanol production showed resistance to the cytotoxicity of menadione, suggesting the resistance of glycolysis to menadione. The growth inhibitory effect of menadione depended on the rapid decrease and the recovery of NAD(P)H rather than production of reactive oxygen species regardless of aerobic culture or anaerobic culture and presence or absence of mitochondrial function. The recovery of NAD(P)H concentration after the addition of menadione might depend on menadione-resistant glycolytic enzymes.     

Lipid peroxidation, protein thiol oxidation and DNA damage in hydrogen peroxide-induced injury to endothelial cells: role of activation of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase

These experiments are a continuation of work investigating the mechanism of oxidant-induced damage to cultured bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (BPEC). Earlier experiments implicated DNA strand breakage and activation of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase as critical steps in cell injury. In the current report, a better defined model of oxidant stress was used to investigate DNA damage, lipid peroxidation and protein thiol oxidation in BPEC following oxidant stress. The dose and time response of LDH release following exposure to H2O2 were established. H2O2 was metabolized rapidly by BPEC (t1/2 = 20 min). Hydrogen peroxide-induced increases in thiobarbituric acid (TBA) reactive material were prevented by pretreatment with the lipophilic antioxidant diphenylphenylinediamine (DPPD). However, DPPD did not decrease LDH release. Conversely, pretreatment with 5 mM 3-aminobenzamide (3AB), a competitive inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, prevented LDH release from BPEC following H2O2 treatment. Dithiothreitol (DTT), a sulfhydryl reducing agent, also prevented LDH release. The effects of 3AB and DTT on H2O2-induced changes in DNA strand breaks and NAD+ and ATP levels were investigated as well as the effect of H2O2 on soluble and protein-bound thiols. As DPPD inhibited peroxidation without preventing LDH release, lipid peroxidation does not appear to play a role in the loss of BPEC viability in response to oxidant stress. As protein thiol oxidation was not caused by H2O2, it does not appear to play a causative role in cytotoxicity, although DTT may protect via maintenance of soluble thiols. H2O2 induces DNA strand breaks, which activate poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, leading to depletion of cellular NAD+ and ATP and loss in cell viability. This supports earlier studies implicating the activation of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase in oxidant injury to cultured endothelial cells.     

The role of glutathione in the aerobic radioresponse. I. Sensitization and recovery in the absence of intracellular glutathione

The effect of changes in both the intracellular glutathione (GSH) concentration and the concentration of extracellular reducing equivalents on the aerobic radiosensitization was studied in three cell lines: CHO-10B4, V79, and A549. Intracellular GSH was metabolically depleted after the inhibition of GSH synthesis by buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), while the extracellular environment was controlled through the replacement of growth medium with a thiol-free salt solution and in some experiments by the exogenous addition of either GSH or GSSG. Each of the cell lines examined exhibited an enhanced aerobic radioresponse when the intracellular GSH was extensively depleted (GSH less than 1 nmol GSH/10(6) cells after 1.0 mM BSO/24 h treatment) and the complexity of the extracellular milieu decreased. Although the addition of oxidized glutathione (5 mM GSSG/30 min) to cells prior to irradiation was without effect, much or all of the induced radiosensitivity was overcome by the addition of reduced glutathione (5 mM GSH/15 min). However, the observation that the exogenous GSH addition restores the control radioresponse without increasing the intracellular GSH concentration was entirely unexpected. These results suggest that a number of factors exert an influence on the extent of GSH depletion and determine the extent of aerobic radiosensitization. Furthermore, the interaction of exogenous GSH with--but without penetrating--the cell membrane is sufficient to result in radiorecovery.     

MPTP, MPP+ and mitochondrial function

1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), the putative toxic metabolite of the neurotoxin, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), inhibited NAD(H)-linked mitochondrial oxidation at the level of Complex I of the electron transport system. MPTP and MPP+ inhibited aerobic glycolysis in mouse striatal slices, as measured by increased lactate production; MPTP-induced effects were prevented by inhibition of monoamine oxidase B activity. Several neurotoxic analogs of MPTP also form pyridinium metabolites via MAO; these MPP+ analogs were all inhibitors of NAD(H)-linked oxidation by isolated mitochondria. 2'-Methyl-MPTP, a more potent neurotoxin in mice than MPTP, was also more potent than MPTP in inducing lactate accumulation in mouse brain striatal slices. Overall, the studies support the hypothesis that compromise of mitochondrial oxidative capacity is an important factor in the mechanisms underlying the toxicity of MPTP and similar compounds.     

Effect of culture conditions on the NADH/NAD ratio and total amounts of NAD(H) in chemostat cultures of Enterococcus faecalis NCTC 775

Abstract Enterococcus faecalis was grown in chemostat culture on various energy sources at dilution rates ranging from 0.05 h⁻¹ to 0.5 h⁻¹, under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. NADH/NAD ratios and total nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide pool size (NAD(H)) were determined. It was found that the NADH/NAD ratio was controlled by the steady state product concentrations rather than by the degree of reduction of the energy source. Highest ratios were observed when NADH was reoxidized via ethanol formation, whereas in aerobic cultures, in which predominantly acetate was produced and oxidation of NADH occurred via the NADH oxidase, ratios were lowest. Addition of ethanol to the medium resulted in an increase of the NADH/NAD ratio, both aerobically and anaerobically. The total amount of NAD(H) was found to be influenced by the culture conditions. Under anaerobic conditions, the NADH oxidation (NAD reduction) rate appeared to correlate with the total amount of nicotinamide nucleotides. In contrast, no effect of the culture conditions on the total amount of NAD(H) was observed in aerobically grown cells.     

Unconventional and effective methods for the regeneration of NAD(P) H in microorganisms or crude extracts of cells

Several yeasts, as well as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria catalyze the reduction of NAD and NADP in the presence of reduced methylviologen. The rates are usually much higher than those of reductions of unsaturated substrates by the organisms in cofermentations with carbohydrates. Since methylviologen can be continuously reduced at the cathode of an electrochemical cell it acts in catalytic amounts as a regenerable electron donor. Such systems may be superior to that with glucose as electron donor, because the NAD(P)H can be used exclusively for the reduction of the unsaturated substrate. The rate of the NAD(P)H formation depends very much on the organism and for the same organism on the growth procedure, the growth medium, the pretreatment of the cells, the pH, the buffer as well as on the ionic strength. Cells of Candida utilis which were frozen and thawed several times were superior to cells freshly harvested. Crude extracts revealed the best activities.Clostridia show the highest activities (up to 15 U per mg protein in the crude extract) and are suitable catalysts for the preparation of [4S-²H]NADH and [4S-²H]NADPH using ²H₂O-buffer in an electrochemical cell.The combinations of Alcaligenes eutrophus or Clostridium kluyveri and Candida utilis extracts in the presence of methylviologen are effective systems to reduce hydroxyacetone with hydrogen gas as electron donor or in an electrochemical cell. In this combination of microorganisms NADH is formed mainly by A. eutrophus or C. kluyveri and consumed for the reduction of hydroxyacetone by a reductase present in Candida utilis. The productivity numbers of such combinations are 10–30 times higher than those of yeasts alone.NAD(P)H regeneration, methylviologen-dependent NAD(P)H formation, deuterated NAD(P)H, Clostridia, yeast, bioreduction     

Oxidation of mitochondrial pyridine nucleotides by aglycone derivatives of adriamycin.

Adriamycin (AdM) and related anthracyclines are potent antineoplastic agents, the clinical utility of which is limited by severe cardiotoxicity. Aglycone derivatives of AdM have recently been reported to trigger the release of Ca2+ from isolated, preloaded rat heart mitochondria and to modify mitochondrial sulfhydryl (-SH) groups. Both mitochondrial Ca2+ retention and -SH status are sensitive to mitochondrial NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H ratios. This investigation examined the effects of AdM and its aglycone derivatives on the pyridine nucleotide redox status of isolated, intact heart mitochondria with the following results. (i) AdM aglycones induced the slow, Ca2(+)-independent oxidation of mitochondrial NAD(P)H. Oxidation was proportional to aglycone concentration between 5 and 60 microM. (ii) In terms of potency, 7-deoxy AdM aglycone greater than or equal to 7-hydroxy AdM aglycone much greater than AdM. (iii) Inhibitor data suggested that NAD(P)H oxidation reflects the rotenone-insensitive reduction of AdM aglycone and subsequent electron transfer to O2 generating superoxide. (iv) NAD(P)H oxidation mediated by AdM aglycone could be distinguished from the Ca2(+)-dependent NAD(P)H oxidation associated with mitochondrial Ca2+ release. This communication is the first to describe redox interactions of AdM with intact mitochondria.     

Mutagenicity of hydrogen peroxide in V79 Chinese hamster cells

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was investigated for its potential to induce gene mutations in V79 Chinese hamster cells. Exposure of 2-3 X 10(6) cells/100-mm dish to 0.5-4.0 mM H2O2 for 1 h resulted in a concentration-dependent increase in the frequency of 6-thioguanine-resistant clones. At 4 mM H2O2 the mutation frequency was increased about 6-fold above that in controls and survival of the cells was reduced by 50%. Cytotoxicity was markedly increased at lower cell densities. When only 100-200 cells/100-mm dish were exposed to H2O2 for 1 h, 50% were killed at an H2O2 concentration as low as 60 microM. The results show that mutagenicity of H2O2 in mammalian cells in vitro has escaped attention previously because the concentrations tested were too low, presumably because the likely toxicity of H2O2 to V79 cells treated at high cell densities was overestimated.     

Poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism in X-irradiated Chinese hamster cells: its relation to repair of potentially lethal damage

Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is the substrate used by cells in poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis. X-irradiation of log-phase Chinese hamster cells caused a rapid decrease in NAD+ levels which was linearly dependent on radiation dose. The activity of ADP-ribosyl transferase ( ADPRT ) also increased linearly with radiation dose. The decrease of NAD+ was slower, and the increase in ADPRT activity was less pronounced, in a radiation sensitive line, V79- AL162 /S-10. An inhibitor of ADPRT , m-aminobenzamide, largely prevented the depletion of cellular NAD+ and reduced the rate at which ADPRT activity disappeared during post-irradiation incubation. Post-irradiation treatment with hypertonic buffer or with medium containing D2O--which inhibit repair of radiation-induced potentially lethal damage--enhanced the depletion of NAD+ and prevented the reduction in ADPRT activity following irradiation. The characteristics of the effects of treatment with hypertonic buffer on NAD+ metabolism were qualitatively similar to the effects that such treatment has on radiation-induced cell killing. These results suggest that poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis after irradiation plays a role in the repair of potentially lethal damage.     

Properties and synthesis regulation of NAD(P)H dehydrogenases from Rhodobacter capsulatus

Three NAD(P)H dehydrogenases were found and purified from a soluble fraction of cells of the purple non-sulfur bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus, strain B10. Molecular mass of NAD(P)H, NADPH and NADH dehydrogenases are 67 000 (4 · 18 000), 35 000 and 39 000, and the isoelectric points are 4.6, 4.3 and 4.5, respectively. NAD(P)H dehydrogenase is characterized by a higher sensitivity to quinacrine, NADPH dehydrogenase by its sensitivity to p-chloromercuribenzoate and NADH dehydrogenase by its sensitivity to sodium arsenite. In contrast to the other two enzymes, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase is capable of oxidizing NADPH as well as NADH, but the ratio of their oxidation rates depends on the pH. All NAD(P)H dehydrogenases reacted with ferricyanide, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, benzoquinone and naphthoquinone, but did not exhibit transhydrogenase, reductase or oxidase activity. Moreover, NADH dehydrogenase was also capable of reducing FAD and FMN. NAD(P)H and NADH dehydrogenases possessed cytochrome-c reductase activity, which was stimulated by menadione and ubiquinone Q₁. The activity of NAD(P)H and NADH dehydrogenases depended on culture-growth conditions. The activity of NAD(P)H dehydrogenase from cells grown under chemoheterotrophic aerobic conditions was the lowest and it increased notably under photoheterotrophic anaerobic conditions upon lactate or malate growth limitation. The activity of NADH dehydrogenase was higher from the cells grown under photoheterotrophic anaerobic conditions upon nitrate growth limitation and under chemoheterotrophic aerobic conditions. NADPH dehydrogenase synthesis dependence on R. capsulatus growth conditions was insignificant.     

Role of ascorbate in oxidative protein folding

Both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, disulfide bond formation (oxidation and isomerization steps) are catalyzed exclusively in extracytoplasmic compartments. In eukaryotes, protein folding and disulfide bond formation are coupled processes that occur both co- and posttranslationally in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is the main site of the synthesis and posttranslational modification of secretory and membrane proteins. The formation of a disulfide bond from the thiol groups of two cysteine residues requires the removal of two electrons, consequently, these bonds cannot form spontaneously; an oxidant is needed to accept the electrons. In aerobic conditions the ultimate electron acceptor is usually oxygen; however, oxygen itself is not effective in protein thiol oxidation. Therefore, a small molecular weight membrane permeable compound should be supposed for the transfer of electrons from the ER lumen. The aim of the present study was the investigation of the role of ascorbate/dehydroascorbate redox couple in oxidative folding of proteins. We demonstrated that ascorbate addition or its in situ synthesis from gulonolactone results in protein thiol (and/or glutathione; GSH) oxidation in rat liver microsomes. Since microsomal membrane is hardly permeable to ascorbate, the existence of a transport metabolon was hypothesized. Three components of the system have been described and partially characterized: (i) A microsomal metalloenzyme is responsible for ascorbate oxidation on the outer surface of the ER. Ascorbate oxidation results in ascorbate free radical and dehydroascorbate production. (ii) Facilitated diffusion of dehydroascorbate is present in microsomal vesicles. The transport is presumably mediated by a GLUT-type transporter. On the contrary, the previously hypothesized glutathione disulfide (GSSG) transport is practically absent, while GSH is transported with a moderate velocity. (iii) Protein disulfide isomerase catalyzes the reduction of dehydroascorbate in the ER lumen. Both GSH and protein thiols can be electron donors in the process. Intraluminal dehydroascorbate reduction and the consequent ascorbate accumulation strictly correlate with protein disulfide isomerase activity and protein thiol concentration. The concerted action of the three components of the system results in the intraluminal accumulation of ascorbate, protein disulfide and GSSG. In fact, intraluminal ascorbate and GSSG accumulation could be observed upon dehydroascorbate and GSH uptake. In conclusion, ascorbate is able to promote protein disulfide formation in an in vitro system. Further work is needed to justify its role in intact cellular and in vivo systems, as well as to explore the participation of other antioxidants (e.g. tocopherol, ubiquinone, and vitamin K) in the electron transfer chain responsible for oxidative protein folding in the ER.     

Role of 2-amino-3-carboxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, a strong growth stimulator for bifidobacteria, as an electron transfer mediator for NAD(P)(+) regeneration in Bifidobacterium longum.

2-Amino-3-carboxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (ACNQ) is a novel growth stimulator for bifidobacteria. The role of ACNQ as a mediator of the electron transfer from NAD(P)H to dioxygen (O(2)) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), proposed in our previous paper, was examined using the cell-free extract and whole cells of Bifidobacterium longum. Continuous monitoring of ACNQ, O(2) and H(2)O(2) by several amperometric techniques has revealed that ACNQ works as a good electron acceptor of NAD(P)H diaphorase and that the reduced form of ACNQ is easily autoxidized and also acts as a better electron donor of NAD(P)H peroxidase than NAD(P)H. The generation of H(2)O(2) by B. longum under aerobic conditions is effectively suppressed in the presence of ACNQ. These ACNQ-mediated reactions would play roles as NAD(P)(+)-regeneration processes. The accumulation of ACNQ in the cytosol has been also suggested. These characteristics of ACNQ seem to be responsible for the growth stimulation of bifidobacteria. Vitamin K(3), which has an extremely low growth-stimulating activity and was used as a reference compound, exhibits much lower activity as an electron transfer mediator. The difference in the activity is discussed in terms of the redox potential and partition property of the quinones.     

Synergistic reduction of toluylene blue induced by acetaldehyde and menadione in yeast cell suspension: Application to determination of yeast cell activity

Membrane permeant acetaldehyde and menadione induced the synergistic reduction of toluylene blue (TB) acting as non-membrane permeant redox indicator in yeast cell suspension. NADH and acetaldehyde also induced the synergistic TB reduction in permeabilized yeast cells and phosphate buffer, but menadione had no ability to promote TB reduction. The pre-incubation of acetaldehyde inhibited the above synergistic reduction of TB in intact and permeabilized yeast cell suspension. The pre-incubation of acetaldehyde might promote NADH oxidation by alcohol dehydrogenase, because acetaldehyde decreased the intracellular NAD(P)H concentration. The above facts indicate that the synergistic reduction of TB is controlled by the order of addition of menadione and acetaldehyde. The synergistic reduction of TB by menadione and acetaldehyde was proportional to viable yeast cell number from 10⁴ to 2×10⁶ cells/ml, and this assay was applicable to cytotoxicity test. The time required for the above assay was only 2 min.     

Detection and characterization of sorbitol dehydrogenase from apple callus tissue

Sorbitol dehydrogenase (l-iditol:NAD(+) oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.1.14) has been detected and characterized from apple (Malus domestica cv. Granny Smith) mesocarp tissue cultures. The enzyme oxidized sorbitol, xylitol, l-arabitol, ribitol, and l-threitol in the presence of NAD. NADP could not replace NAD. Mannitol was slightly oxidized (8% of sorbitol). Other polyols that did not serve as substrate were galactitol, myo-inositol, d-arabitol, erythritol, and glycerol. The dehydrogenase oxidized NADH in the presence of d-fructose or l-sorbose. No detectable activity was observed with d-tagatose. NADPH could partially substitute for NADH.Maximum rate of NAD reduction in the presence of sorbitol occurred in tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane-HCl buffer (pH 9), or in 2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol buffer (pH 9.5). Maximum rates of NADH oxidation in the presence of fructose were observed between pH 5.7 and 7.0 with phosphate buffer. Reaction rates increased with increasing temperature up to 60 C. The K(m) for sorbitol and xylitol oxidation were 86 millimolar and 37 millimolar, respectively. The K(m) for fructose reduction was 1.5 molar.Sorbitol oxidation was completely inhibited by heavy metal ions, iodoacetate, p-chloromercuribenzoate, and cysteine. ZnSO(4) (0.25 millimolar) reversed the cysteine inhibition. It is suggested that apple sorbitol dehydrogenase contains sulfhydryl groups and requires a metal ion for full activity.