Comparison of the four mouse fasciclin-containing genes expression patterns during valvuloseptal morphogenesis

All four mammalian fasciclin-containing genes are expressed in the adult valves and are localized in partially overlapping and reciprocal patterns during cardiovascular development. Spatiotemporal comparison of the fasciclin-containing secreted adhesion genes, TGFbeta induced clone H3 (betaigH3) and periostin, revealed that they are co-localized within the outflow tract endocardial cushions, but that betaigH3 expression is restricted to the septal cushions within the atrioventricular canal. Conversely, the fasciclin-containing transmembrane gene, stabilin-1, is predominately expressed in the endocardial layer overlaying the cushions and lining the developing heart. However, expression of the fasciclin-containing transmembrane gene, stabilin-2 is only present in the post-natal mature valve endothelial cells. These data illustrate for the first time that the primitive endocardial cushions dynamically express multiple fasciclin-containing adhesion molecules as they undergo the key steps of seeding, proliferation, differentiation, fusion, mesenchymal condensation and remodeling during mouse heart development.     

A critical role for the EphA3 receptor tyrosine kinase in heart development

Eph proteins are receptor tyrosine kinases that control changes in cell shape and migration during development. We now describe a critical role for EphA3 receptor signaling in heart development as revealed by the phenotype of EphA3 null mice. During heart development mesenchymal outgrowths, the atrioventricular endocardial cushions, form in the atrioventricular canal. This morphogenetic event requires endocardial cushion cells to undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT), and results in the formation of the atrioventricular valves and membranous portions of the atrial and ventricular septa. We show that EphA3 knockouts have significant defects in the development of their atrial septa and atrioventricular endocardial cushions, and that these cardiac abnormalities lead to the death of approximately 75% of homozygous EphA3(-/-) mutants. We demonstrate that EphA3 and its ligand, ephrin-A1, are expressed in adjacent cells in the developing endocardial cushions. We further demonstrate that EphA3(-/-) atrioventricular endocardial cushions are hypoplastic compared to wildtype and that EphA3(-/-) endocardial cushion explants give rise to fewer migrating mesenchymal cells than wildtype explants. Thus our results indicate that EphA3 plays a crucial role in the development and morphogenesis of the cells that give rise to the atrioventricular valves and septa.     

Atrioventricular cushion transformation is mediated by ALK2 in the developing mouse heart

Developmental abnormalities in endocardial cushions frequently contribute to congenital heart malformations including septal and valvular defects. While compelling evidence has been presented to demonstrate that members of the TGF-beta superfamily are capable of inducing endothelial-to-mesenchymal transdifferentiation in the atrioventricular canal, and thus play a key role in formation of endocardial cushions, the detailed signaling mechanisms of this important developmental process, especially in vivo, are still poorly known. Several type I receptors (ALKs) for members of the TGF-beta superfamily are expressed in the myocardium and endocardium of the developing heart, including the atrioventricular canal. However, analysis of their functional role during mammalian development has been significantly complicated by the fact that deletion of the type I receptors in mouse embryos often leads to early embryonal lethality. Here, we used the Cre/loxP system for endothelial-specific deletion of the type I receptor Alk2 in mouse embryos. The endothelial-specific Alk2 mutant mice display defects in atrioventricular septa and valves, which result from a failure of endocardial cells to appropriately transdifferentiate into the mesenchyme in the AV canal. Endocardial cells deficient in Alk2 demonstrate decreased expression of Msx1 and Snail, and reduced phosphorylation of BMP and TGF-beta Smads. Moreover, we show that endocardial cells lacking Alk2 fail to delaminate from AV canal explants. Collectively, these results indicate that the BMP type I receptor ALK2 in endothelial cells plays a critical non-redundant role in early phases of endocardial cushion formation during cardiac morphogenesis.     

Functional BMP receptor in endocardial cells is required in atrioventricular cushion mesenchymal cell formation in chick

Transformation of atrioventricular (AV) canal endocardium into invasive mesenchyme correlates spatially and temporally with the expression of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 in the AV myocardium. We revealed the presence of mRNA of Type I BMP receptors, BMPR-1A (ALK3), BMPR-1B (ALK6) and ALK2 in chick AV endocardium at stage-14(-), the onset of epithelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT), by RT-PCR and localized BMPR-1B mRNA in the endocardium by in situ hybridization. To circumvent the functional redundancies among the Type I BMP receptors, we applied dominant-negative (dn) BMPR-1B-viruses to chick AV explants and whole-chick embryo cultures to specifically block BMP signaling in AV endocardium during EMT. dnBMPR-1B-virus infection of AV endocardial cells abolished BMP-2-supported AV endocardial EMT. Conversely, caBMPR-1B-virus infection promoted AV endocardial EMT in the absence of AV myocardium. Moreover, dnBMPR-1B-virus treatments significantly reduced myocardially supported EMT in AV endocardial-myocardial co-culture. AV cushion mesenchymal cell markers, alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA), and TGFbeta3 in the endocardial cells were promoted by caBMPR-1B and reduced by dnBMPR-1B infection. Microinjection of the virus into the cardiac jelly in the AV canal at stage-13 in vivo (ovo) revealed that the dnBMPR-1B-virus-infected cells remained in the endocardial epithelium, whereas caBMPR-1B-infected cells invaded deep into the cushions. These results provide evidence that BMP signaling through the AV endocardium is required for the EMT and the activation of the BMP receptor in the endocardium can promote AV EMT in the chick.     

Tbx20 regulation of endocardial cushion cell proliferation and extracellular matrix gene expression

While recent work has implicated Tbx20 in myocardial maturation and proliferation, the role of Tbx20 in heart valve development remains relatively unknown. Tbx20 expression was manipulated in primary avian endocardial cells in order to elucidate its function in developing endocardial cushions. Tbx20 gain of function was achieved with a Tbx20-adenovirus, and endogenous Tbx20 expression was inhibited with Tbx20-specific siRNA in cultured endocardial cushion cells. With Tbx20 gain of function, the expression of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPG), including aggrecan and versican, was decreased, while the expression of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) mmp9 and mmp13 was increased. Consistent results were observed with Tbx20 loss of function, where the expression of CSPG genes increased and MMP genes decreased. In addition, cushion mesenchyme proliferation increased with infection of a Tbx20-adenovirus and decreased with transfection of Tbx20-specfic siRNA. Furthermore, BMP2 treatment resulted in increased Tbx20 expression in endocardial cushion cells, and loss of Tbx20 led to increased Tbx2 and decreased N-myc gene expression. Taken together, these data support a role for Tbx20 in repressing extracellular matrix remodeling and promoting cell proliferation in mesenchymal valve precursor populations in endocardial cushions during embryonic development.     

The dynamic expression pattern of frzb-1 suggests multiple roles in chick development

The Wnt family of secreted proteins has been shown to have multiple roles in embryonic development. Wnt signals are thought to be propagated by binding to the cysteine-rich extracellular domain (CRD) of Frizzled, a seven-transmembrane-domain cell surface receptor. Secreted Frizzled-related proteins (generally denoted Frzb or Sfrp) possess a domain with a high degree of sequence identity and structural similarity with the CRD of Frizzled. Current data indicate that the cysteine-rich domain of secreted Frzb proteins can bind Wnt proteins, suggesting the possibility that Frzbs compete with membrane-bound Frizzled for Wnt binding and consequently act as competitive inhibitors of Wnt signaling. In order to gain a better understanding of the potential roles of Frzb-1 in chick development, we utilized the polymerase chain reaction to isolate a partial cDNA of the chick orthologue of frzb-1, cfrzb-1, and compared its expression pattern to that of Wnt-1, Wnt-3a, Wnt-5a, Wnt-7a, and Wnt-8c. Whole-mount in situ hybridizations have revealed three major phases of expression for cfrzb-1 in the developing chick. The earliest expression of cfrzb-1 is in cells fated to become neural ectoderm in streak-stage embryos. Expression of cfrzb-1 in the neural ectoderm continues up through stage 8. After stage 8, cfrzb-1 expression is gradually attenuated in the closing neural tube of the trunk and is concomitantly up-regulated in neural crest cells. Finally, cfrzb-1 appears in the condensing mesenchyme of the bones in both the limb and the trunk in stage 25+ embryos. Comparative analysis of the cfrzb-1 and the Wnt gene expression patterns suggests possible interactions between cFrzb-1 and all of the Wnt family members examined.     

Nephronectin regulates atrioventricular canal differentiation via Bmp4-Has2 signaling in zebrafish

The extracellular matrix is crucial for organogenesis. It is a complex and dynamic component that regulates cell behavior by modulating the activity, bioavailability and presentation of growth factors to cell surface receptors. Here, we determined the role of the extracellular matrix protein Nephronectin (Npnt) in heart development using the zebrafish model system. The vertebrate heart is formed as a linear tube in which myocardium and endocardium are separated by a layer of extracellular matrix termed the cardiac jelly. During heart development, the cardiac jelly swells at the atrioventricular (AV) canal, which precedes valve formation. Here, we show that Npnt expression correlates with this process. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of Npnt prevents proper valve leaflet formation and trabeculation and results in greater than 85% lethality at 7 days post-fertilization. The earliest observed phenotype is an extended tube-like structure at the AV boundary. In addition, the expression of myocardial genes involved in cardiac valve formation (cspg2, fibulin 1, tbx2b, bmp4) is expanded and endocardial cells along the extended tube-like structure exhibit characteristics of AV cells (has2, notch1b and Alcam expression, cuboidal cell shape). Inhibition of has2 in npnt morphants rescues the endocardial, but not the myocardial, expansion. By contrast, reduction of BMP signaling in npnt morphants reduces the ectopic expression of myocardial and endocardial AV markers. Taken together, our results identify Npnt as a novel upstream regulator of Bmp4-Has2 signaling that plays a crucial role in AV canal differentiation.     

Wnt-4 signaling is involved in the control of smooth muscle cell fate via Bmp-4 in the medullary stroma of the developing kidney

Wnt-4, a member of the Wnt family of secreted signaling molecules, is essential for nephrogenesis, but its expression in the presumptive medulla suggests additional developmental roles in kidney organogenesis. We demonstrate here that Wnt-4 signaling plays also a role in the determination of the fate of smooth muscle cells in the medullary stroma of the developing kidney, as a differentiation marker, smooth muscle alpha-actin (alpha-SMA), is markedly reduced in the absence of its signaling. Wnt-4 probably performs this function by activating the Bmp-4 gene encoding a known differentiation factor for smooth muscle cells, since Bmp-4 gene expression was lost in the absence of Wnt-4 while Wnt-4 signaling led to a rescue of Bmp-4 expression and induction of alpha-SMA-positive cells in vitro. Recombinant Bmp-4 similarly rescued the differentiation of alpha-SMA-expressing cells in cultured Wnt-4-deficient embryonic kidney. The lack of smooth muscle cell differentiation leads to an associated deficiency in the pericytes around the developing vessels of the Wnt-4-deficient kidney and apparently leads to a secondary defect in the maturation of the kidney vessels. Thus, besides being critical for regulating mesenchymal to epithelial transformation in the cortical region in nephrogenesis, Wnt-4 signaling regulates the fate of smooth muscle cells in the developing medullary region.     

Differential regulation of osteogenic marker gene expression by Wnt-3a in embryonic mesenchymal multipotential progenitor cells

The Wnt family of secreted glycoproteins plays an integral role in embryonic development and differentiation. To explore the role of Wnt's in one aspect of differentiation, namely osteogenesis, we employed a retroviral gene transfer approach to express Wnt-3a in the multipotent murine embryonic mesenchymal cell line C3H10T1/2. We found that expression of Wnt-3a in these cells had a significant, positive effect on cell growth in serum-containing medium, in that the cells grew to very high densities compared to the control cells. Additionally, apoptosis was markedly inhibited by Wnt-3a. However, when the cells were grown in serum-deficient medium, the Wnt-3a-expressing cells arrested efficiently in G1 phase, indicating that serum growth factors were needed in addition to Wnt-3a for enhanced proliferation. Wnt-3a-expressing cells exhibited high levels of alkaline phosphatase gene expression and enzymatic activity, but did not show any matrix mineralization. Unexpectedly, basal expression of bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, and osteopontin were markedly inhibited by Wnt-3a, as were other known target genes of Wnt-3a, such as Brachyury, FGF-10, and Cdx1. When Wnt-3a-expressing cells were treated with osteogenic supplements in the presence of BMP-2, alkaline phosphatase gene expression and activity were further elevated. Additionally, BMP-2 was able to reverse the inhibitory effect of Wnt-3a on osteocalcin and osteopontin gene expression. These results indicate that while Wnt-3a represses basal expression of some osteogenic genes, this repression can be partially reversed by BMP-2. Finally, the enhanced gene expression of alkaline phosphatase induced by Wnt-3a could be effectively suppressed by the combined action of dexamethasone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). These data show for the first time that Wnt-3a has an unusual effect on multipotential embryonic cells, in that it enhances cellular proliferation and expression of alkaline phosphatase, while it represses most other marker genes of osteogenic differentiation.     

Wnt信号通路对成纤维细胞Rat-1生长及表型的调控

构建Wnt-3a的真核表达拽体并稳定转染人鼠成纤维细胞Rat-1,建立Wnt信号通路持续激活的细胞模型,以探讨Wnt信号通路激活对咳细胞的牛K以及某些表型特征的影响。结果表明：Wnt信号通路持续激活时,Rat-1细胞形态表现为细胞长度的增加,其折光性以及呈绳索状的成束密集排布：MTT以及流式细胞仪检测表明稳定转染后细胞增殖率明显高于正常对照组,进入G2期的细胞增多,细胞增殖分裂能力增强：Transwell小窄迁移实验证实转染组的细胞迁移率略高于对照组,但无显著性差异;体外划痕实验表明,稳定转染后的Rat-1细胞在划痕后伤口愈合时问显著缩短。结果提示：体外Wnt信号通路的激沂能够引起成纤维细胞某些表型改变,并促进细胞增殖,加速体外伤口的修复。     

Misexpression of noggin leads to septal defects in the outflow tract of the chick heart.

BMP-2 and BMP-4 are known to be involved in the early events which specify the cardiac lineage. Their later patterns of expression in the developing mouse and chick heart, in the myocardium overlying the atrioventricular canal (AV) and outflow tract (OFT) cushions, also suggest that they may play a role in valvoseptal development. In this study, we have used a recombinant retrovirus expressing noggin to inhibit the function of BMP-2/4 in the developing chick heart. This procedure resulted in abnormal development of the OFT and the ventricular septum. A spectrum of abnormalities was seen ranging from common arterial trunk to double outlet right ventricle. In hearts infected with noggin virus, where the neural crest cells have been labelled, the results show that BMP-2/4 function is required for the migration of neural crest cells into the developing OFT to form the aortopulmonary septum. Prior to septation, misexpression of noggin also leads to a decrease in the number of proliferating mesenchymal cells within the proximal cushions of the outflow tract. These results suggest that BMP-2/4 function may mediate several key events during cardiac development.     

Increased connexin 43 expression improves the migratory and proliferative ability of H9c2 cells by Wnt-3a overexpression

The change of connexin 43 (Cx43) expression and the biological behaviors of Cx43 in rat heart cell line H9c2, expressing Wnt-3a (wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3A) were evaluated in the present study. Plasmid pcDNA3.1/Wnt-3a was constructed and transferred into H9c2 cells. The cell model Wnt-3a~ -H9c2 steadily expressing Wnt-3a was obtained. Compared with H9c2 and pcDNA3.1-H9c2 cells, the expression of Cx43 in Wnt-3a~ -H9c2 cells was clearly increased, the proliferation of Wnt-3a~ -H9c2 cells was significantly changed, and cell migration abilities were also improved (P<0.05). In comparison with H9c2 and pcDNA3.1-H9c2 cells, the G_2 phase of the cell cycle increased by 11% in Wnt-3a~ -H9c2 cells. Thus, Wnt-3a overexpression is associated with an increase in Cx43 expression and altered migratory and proliferative activity in H9c2 cells. Cx43 might be one of the downstream target genes regulated by Wnt-3a.     

Regulation of apoptosis in the endocardial cushions of the developing chick heart

During the early stages of heartdevelopment, there are two main foci of cell death: outflow tract (OT)and atrioventricular (AV) endocardial cushions. These tissuescontribute to the septa and valves of the mature heart and receive cellpopulations from neural crest (NC) cell migration and epicardial cellinvasion. We examined embryonic chick hearts for expression, in thecushions, of bcl-2 family members, caspase-9, and the caspase substrate poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Antiapoptotic bcl-2 is expressed heavily in the OT and AV regions throughout embryonic days (ED) 4-7, with a decrease in levels at ED 4 and 5 in OT and AVcushions, respectively. Proapoptotic bax predominantly associatedwith the prongs of the NC-derived aorticopulmonary (AP) septum but was expressed throughout the AV cushions. Proapoptotic bak alsoassociated with the prongs of the AP septum in the OT, while proteinlevels were upregulated at ED 4-5 and 4-6 in OT and AVcushions, respectively. Bid expression showed a similar time course. Wefound the 10-kDa cleavage fragment of active caspase-9 at ED 4-8and 5-8 in OT and AV cushions, respectively, and the 24-kDacleavage fragment of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase throughout ED 3-8and 7-8 in OT and AV cushions, respectively. Caspase-3 cleavageoccurred throughout the time period examined. Using cushion cellcultures, we found that inhibitors of caspases-3 and -9 and a universalcaspase inhibitor significantly reduced apoptosis, as didretroviral overexpression of bcl-2 using an RCAS expression vector.Premigratory NC cells were fluorescently labeled in vivo with1,1-didodecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine. Subsequent nuclearstaining of cushion cells with 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole revealedthe presence of apoptotic nuclei in the NC cells in the OT cushionsand in the prongs of the AP septum. These results demonstrate adevelopmentally regulated role for the bcl-2 and the caspase familiesof molecules in the endocardial cushions of the developing heart andlend support to the possibility that some of the dying cells in thecushions are derived from the NC.

     

Msx1creERT2 knock‐In allele: A useful tool to target embryonic and adult cardiac valves

Summary : Heart valve development begins with the endothelial‐to‐mesenchymal transition (EMT) of endocardial cells. Although lineage studies have demonstrated contributions from cardiac neural crest and epicardium to semilunar and atrioventricular (AV) valve formation, respectively, most valve mesenchyme derives from the endocardial EMT. Specific Cre mouse lines for fate‐mapping analyses of valve endocardial cells are limited. Msx1 displayed expression in AV canal endocardium and cushion mesenchyme between E9.5 and E11.5, when EMT is underway. Additionally, previous studies have demonstrated that deletion of Msx1 and its paralog Msx2 results in hypoplastic AV cushions and impaired endocardial signaling. A knock‐in tamoxifen‐inducible Cre line was recently generated (Msx1^CreERT2) and characterized during embryonic development and after birth, and was shown to recapitulate the endogenous Msx1 expression pattern. Here, we further analyze this knock‐in allele and track the Msx1‐expressing cells and their descendants during cardiac development with a particular focus on their contribution to the valves and their precursors. Thus, Msx1^CreERT2 mice represent a useful model for lineage tracing and conditional gene manipulation of endocardial and mesenchymal cushion cells essential to understand mechanisms of valve development and remodeling. genesis 53:337–345, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-4 can induce proliferation of cardiac cushion mesenchymal cells during early valve leaflet formation

While much has been learned about how endothelial cells transform to mesenchyme during cardiac cushion formation, there remain fundamental questions about the developmental fate of cushions. In the present work, we focus on the growth and development of cushion mesenchyme. We hypothesize that proliferative expansion and distal elongation of cushion mesenchyme mediated by growth factors are the basis of early valve leaflet formation. As a first step to test this hypothesis, we have localized fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-4 protein in cushion mesenchymal cells at the onset of prevalve leaflet formation in chick embryos (Hamburger and Hamilton stage 20-25). Ligand distribution was correlated with FGF receptor (FGFR) expression. In situ hybridization data indicated that FGFR3 mRNA was confined to the endocardial rim of the atrioventricular (AV) cushion pads, whereas FGFR2 was expressed exclusively in cushion mesenchymal cells. FGFR1 expression was detected in both endocardium and cushion mesenchyme as well as in myocardium. To determine whether the FGF pathways play regulatory roles in cushion mesenchymal cell proliferation and elongation into prevalvular structure, FGF-4 protein was added to the cushion mesenchymal cells explanted from stage 24-25 chick embryos. A significant increase in proliferative ability was strongly suggested in FGF-4-treated mesenchymal cells as judged by the incorporation of 5'-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). To determine whether cushion cells responded similarly in vivo, a replication-defective retrovirus encoding FGF-4 with the reporter, bacterial beta-galactosidase was microinjected into stage 18 chick cardiac cushion mesenchyme along the inner curvature where AV and outflow cushions converge. As compared with vector controls, overexpression of FGF-4 clearly induced expansion of cushion mesenchyme toward the lumen. To further test the proliferative effect of FGF-4 in cardiac cushion expansion in vivo (ovo), FGF-4 protein was microinjected into stage 18 chick inner curvature. An assay for BrdU incorporation indicated a significant increase in proliferative ability in FGF-4 microinjected cardiac cushion mesenchyme as compared with BSA-microinjected controls. Together, these results suggest a role of FGF-4 for cardiac valve leaflet formation through proliferative expansion of cushion mesenchyme.