Stimulation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT(2C) ) receptors in the ventrotegmental area inhibits stress-induced but not basal dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex

The present study investigated whether 5-HT(2C) receptors in the ventrotegmental area and prefrontal cortex regulate basal and stimulus-evoked dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. Using the in vivo microdialysis technique in conscious rats, we studied the effect of a selective 5-HT(2C) receptor agonist, Ro60-0175, on basal and immobilization stress-induced dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. Ro60-0175 intraperitoneally (2.5 mg/kg) and into the ventrotegmental area (10 microg/0.5 microL) completely antagonized the effect of stress on extracellular dopamine without altering basal levels. Infusion of 10 microm Ro60-0175 through the cortical probe had no significant effect on basal and stress-induced dopamine release. SB242084 (10 mg/kg), a selective antagonist of 5-HT(2C) receptors, significantly increased basal extracellular dopamine and completely prevented the effect of intraperitoneal and intraventrotegmental Ro60-0175 on the stress-induced rise of extracellular dopamine, but had no effect itself in stressed rats. The results show that Ro60-0175 suppresses cortical dopamine release induced by immobilization stress through the stimulation of 5-HT(2C) receptors in the ventrotegmental area. While confirming that endogenous 5-HT acting on 5-HT(2C) receptors tonically inhibit basal dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, the present findings suggest that the stimulation of 5-HT(2C) receptors with an exogenous agonist preferentially inhibit stimulated release.     

The activation of 5-HT receptors in prefrontal cortex enhances dopaminergic activity

Atypical antipsychotics show preferential 5-HT 2A versus dopamine (DA) D2 receptor affinity. At clinical doses, they fully occupy cortical 5-HT2 receptors, which suggests a strong relationship with their therapeutic action. Half of the pyramidal neurones in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) express 5-HT 2A receptors. Also, neurones excited through 5-HT 2A receptors project to the ventral tegmental area (VTA). We therefore hypothesized that prefrontal 5-HT 2A receptors can modulate DA transmission through excitatory mPFC-VTA inputs. In this study we used single unit recordings to examine the responses of DA neurones to local (in the mPFC) and systemic administration of the 5-HT 2A/2C agonist 1-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl-2-aminopropane] (DOI). Likewise, using microdialysis, we examined DA release in the mPFC and VTA (single/dual probe) in response to prefrontal and systemic drug administration. The local (in the mPFC) and systemic administration of DOI increased the firing rate and burst firing of DA neurones and DA release in the VTA and mPFC. The increase in VTA DA release was mimicked by the electrical stimulation of the mPFC. The effects of DOI were reversed by M100907 and ritanserin. These results indicate that the activity of VTA DA neurones is under the excitatory control of 5-HT 2A receptors in the mPFC. These observations may help in the understanding of the therapeutic action of atypical antipsychotics.     

Type-1, but Not Type-5, Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors are Coupled to Polyphosphoinositide Hydrolysis in the Retina

mGlu1 and mGlu5 metabotropic glutamate receptors are expressed in the vertebrate retina, and are co-localized in some retinal neurons. It is believed that both receptors are coupled to polyphosphoinositide (PI) hydrolysis in the retina and their function may diverge in some cells because of a differential engagement of downstream signaling molecules. Here, we show that it is only the mGlu1 receptor that is coupled to PI hydrolysis in the retina. We used either bovine retinal slices or intact mouse retinas challenged with the mixed mGlu1/5 receptor agonist, DHPG. In both models, DHPG-stimulated PI hydrolysis was abrogated by the selective mGlu1 receptor antagonist, JNJ16259685, but was insensitive to the mGlu5 receptor antagonist, MPEP. In addition, the PI response to DHPG was unchanged in the retina of mGlu5^?/? mice but was abolished in the retina of crv4 mice lacking mGlu1 receptors. Stimulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway by DHPG in intact mouse retinas were also entirely mediated by mGlu1 receptors. Our data provide the first example of a tissue in which a biochemically detectable PI response is mediated by mGlu1, but not mGlu5, receptors. Hence, bovine retinal slices might be used as a model for the functional screening of mGlu1 receptor ligands. In addition, the mGlu1 receptor caters the potential as a drug target in the experimental treatment of degenerative disorders of the retina.

     

Permissive role of adenosine A2A receptors on metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5)-mediated effects in the striatum

The metabotropic glutamate receptors 5 (mGlu5Rs) and the adenosine A2A receptors (A2ARs) have been reported to functionally interact in the striatum. The aim of the present work was to verify the hypothesis that the state of activation of A2A Rs could influence mGlu5R-mediated effects in the striatum. In electrophysiological experiments (extracellular recording in rat corticostriatal slices), the ability of the selective mGlu5R agonist CHPG to potentiate the reduction of the field potential amplitude induced by NMDA was prevented not only by the selective mGlu5R antagonist MPEP, but also by the selective A2AR antagonist ZM 241385. Analogously, the application of CHPG potentiated NMDA-induced toxicity (measured by LDH release) in cultured striatal neurons, an effect that was abolished by both MPEP and ZM 241385. Finally, the A2AR agonist CGS 21680 potentiated CHGP effects, an action that was reproduced and abolished, respectively, by forskolin (an activator of the cAMP/protein kinase A, PKA, pathway) and KT 5720 (a PKA inhibitor). The results indicate that A2ARs exert a permissive role on mGlu5R-induced effects in the striatum. Such an interaction may represent an additional target for the development of therapeutic strategies towards striatal disorders.     

Local Activation of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Inhibits the Handling-Induced Increased Release of Dopamine in the Nucleus Accumbens but Not that of Dopamine or Noradrenaline in the Prefrontal Cortex: Comparison with Inhibition of Ionotropic Receptors

Abstract: On-line in vivo microdialysis was used to determine the effects of a 16-min handling period on release of dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens and of DA and noradrenaline (NA) in the medial prefrontal cortex of awake, freely moving rats. DA and NA were determined in one HPLC run. Handling resulted in an immediate and strong increase of both catecholamines in the prefrontal cortex. Maximal values for DA were 295%, and for NA 225%, of controls. DA in the nucleus accumbens was also increased (to 135% of controls) but only after a short delay. Local inhibition of ionotropic glutamate receptors by continuous reversed dialysis of the drugs 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline, d -2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid, or dizocilpine did not significantly affect handling-induced increases in cortical DA and NA release. Neither did the agonist of metabotropic glutamate receptors, trans -(1 S ,3 R )-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD), or the GABA-B agonist baclofen. Reversed dialysis of dizocilpine in the nucleus accumbens was equally ineffective, but ACPD inhibited the increase in DA release in this area. Stimulation of metabotropic glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens was previously reported to inhibit activation of DA release in that area after stimulation of glutamatergic or dopaminergic afferents. It is concluded that metabotropic receptors in the nucleus accumbens are important for the control of activation of DA release in the accumbens by physiological stimuli but that a similar mechanism is lacking in the prefrontal cortex.     

The potent, selective mGlu2/3 receptor agonist LY379268 increases extracellular levels of dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid in the medial prefrontal cortex of the freely moving rat

Previous work has shown that the potent, selective metabotropic glutamate mGlu2/3 receptor agonist LY379268 acts like the atypical antipsychotic clozapine in behavioral assays. To investigate further the potential antipsychotic actions of this agent, we examined the effects of LY379268 using microdialysis in awake, freely moving rats, on extracellular levels of dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA), and 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA) in rat medial prefrontal cortex. Systemic LY379268 increased extracellular levels of dopamine, DOPAC, HVA, and 5-HIAA in a dose-dependent, somewhat delayed manner. LY379268 (3 mg/kg s.c. ) increased levels of dopamine, DOPAC, HVA, and 5-HIAA to 168, 170, 169, and 151% of basal, respectively. Clozapine (10 mg/kg) also increased dopamine, DOPAC, and HVA levels, with increases of 255, 262, and 173%, respectively, but was without effect on extracellular 5-HIAA levels by 3 mg/kg LY379268 were reversed by the selective mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist LY341495 (1 mg/kg). Furthermore, LY379268 (3 mg/kg)-evoked increases in DOPAC and HVA were partially blocked and the increase in 5-HIAA was completely blocked by local application of 3 microM tetrodotoxin. Therefore, we have demonstrated that mGlu2/3 receptor agonists activate dopaminergic and serotonergic brain pathways previously associated with the action of atypical antipsychotics such as clozapine and other psychiatric agents.     

Cortical Regulation of Subcortical Dopamine Release: Mediation via the Ventral Tegmental Area

Abstract: In vivo microdialysis was used to determine the extent to which ionotropic glutamate receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) regulate dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Coapplication of 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP5; 200 µ M ) and 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX; 50 µ M ) to the VTA via reverse dialysis decreased extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens by ∼30%. In accordance with previous results, electrical stimulation of the prefrontal cortex increased dopamine release by 60%. Application of AP5 and CNQX to the VTA during cortical stimulation blocked the effect of stimulation on dopamine release. These results indicate that ionotropic glutamate receptors in the VTA are critically involved in basal and evoked dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and suggest that a glutamatergic projection from the prefrontal cortex regulates the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA.     

The mGlu2/3 receptor agonist, LY354740, blocks immobilization-induced increases in noradrenaline and dopamine release in the rat medial prefrontal cortex

The metabotropic glutamate (mGlu2/3) receptor agonist, LY354740, exhibits anxiolytic-like properties in a number of rodent models. The present study utilized in vivo microdialysis to examine the effects of LY354740 on extracellular monoamine levels in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of animals subjected to 30 min immobilization stress. Immobilization stress significantly elevated extracellular levels of noradrenaline (NA) and dopamine (DA) in the mPFC, while systemic administration of LY354740 (30 mg/kg, s.c.) significantly attenuated immobilization-induced increases in both NA and DA. Reverse-dialysis of LY354740 (30 microm) into the mPFC significantly attenuated immobilization-induced increases in NA, but not DA without affecting basal levels of either amine. In separate studies in the presence of citalopram (1 microm; reverse dialysis into the mPFC), systemic administration of LY354740 attenuated immobilization-induced increases in NA and DA, but had no effect on serotonin (5-HT) levels. Co-administration of the selective mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist, LY341495, partially or fully reversed the attenuation in NA and DA levels produced by LY354740, respectively. Taken together, these data suggest that LY354740 may produce anti-stress actions, in part, by blocking stress-related increases in catecholamines in the mPFC via mGlu2/3 receptor stimulation.     

Characterisation of the actions of group I metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype selective ligands on excitatory amino acid release and sodium-dependent re-uptake in rat cerebrocortical minislices

In this study we have tested the effects of a wide range of metabotropic glutamate receptor ligands on (i) depolarisation-evoked efflux of pre-accumulated d-[3H]aspartic acid (d-[3H]asp) from rapidly superfused rat cerebrocortical minislices, and (ii) Na+-dependent uptake of d-[3H]asp into cerebrocortical tissue. Transient elevations in extracellular K+ produced concentration-dependent increases in d-[3H]asp efflux. A submaximally effective concentration (50 mm) was used in all subsequent experiments. The broad-spectrum mGlu receptor agonist (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid [(1S,3R)-ACPD; EC50 17.8 microm], the group I mGlu-selective agonist (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine [(S)-3,5-DHPG; EC50 0.5 microm] and the mGlu5 receptor subtype-selective agonist (RS)-2-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine [(RS)-CHPG; EC50 7.3 microm] all concentration-dependently potentiated high K+-evoked d-[3H]asp efflux in the absence of effects on basal outflow of radiolabel. At concentrations selective for mGlu1 receptors, the antagonists (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid [(RS)-AIDA; 10-300 microm]; (+)-2-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine [LY367385; 1-100 microm] and 7-hydroxyiminocyclopropan[b]chromen-1a-carboxylate ethyl ester [CPCCOEt, 1-30 microm] all failed to inhibit responses to (S)-3,5-DHPG. However, the broad-spectrum mGlu receptor antagonist (S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine [(S)-MCPG; IC50 88.5 microm] together with the recently described mGlu5-selective antagonists, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP; IC50 0.6 microm), 6-methyl-2-(phenyl-azo)-3-pyridinol (SIB-1757; IC50 4.4 microm) and (E)-2-methyl-6-(2-phenylethenyl)pyridine (SIB-1893; IC50 3.1 microm), at mGlu5-selective concentrations, all powerfully and concentration-dependently inhibited (S)-3,5-DHPG-evoked responses. Two selective excitatory amino acid (EAA) uptake inhibitors, l-trans-2,4-pyrrolidine dicarboxylate (l-trans-2,4-PDC; IC50 229 microm) and dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (dl-TBOA; IC50 665 microm) both inhibited the Na+-dependent uptake of d-[3H]asp into cerebrocortical minislices. Importantly, none of the mGlu ligands utilized in the present study significantly inhibited d-[3H]asp uptake at concentrations shown to potentiate K+-evoked efflux. These data demonstrate for the first time that mGlu5 ligands modulate extracellular EAA concentrations by a direct effect on mGlu5-type autoreceptors on EAA nerve terminals as they evoke clear changes in EAA release in the absence of any effects on EAA uptake. Selective mGlu5 receptor antagonists that show high potency and good central bioavailability may provide novel classes of neuroprotective agents for the treatment of brain disorders associated with abnormal EAAergic neurotransmission.     

Metabotropic glutamate type 1alpha receptor localizes in low-density caveolin-rich plasma membrane fractions

Recent evidence suggest that many G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) and signalling molecules localize in microdomains of the plasma membrane. In this study, flotation gradient analysis in the absence of detergents demonstrated the presence of the metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1alpha (mGlu1alpha) in low-density caveolin-enriched membrane fractions (CEMF) in permanently transfected BHK cells. BHK-1alpha cells exhibit a similar pattern of staining for caveolin-1 and caveolin-2, and these two proteins show a high degree of co-localization with mGlu1alpha receptor as demonstrated by immunogold and confocal laser microscopy. The presence of mGlu1alpha in CEMF was also demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation of mGlu1alpha receptor using antibodies against caveolin proteins. Activation of the mGlu1alpha receptor by agonist increased extracellular signal-regulated kinases phosphorylation in CEMF and not in high-density membrane fractions (HDMF), suggesting that mGlu1alpha receptor-mediated signal transduction could occur in caveolae-like domains. Overall, these results clearly show a molecular and functional association of mGlu1alpha receptor with caveolins.     

The 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT prevents prefrontocortical glutamate and serotonin release in response to blockade of cortical NMDA receptors

We studied the role of 5-HT(1A) receptors in controlling the release of glutamate (GLU) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of conscious rats with the in vivo microdialysis technique. The effect of the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin infused in the prefrontal cortex was examined under basal conditions and on the rise of extracellular GLU (+106%) induced by co-infusion of the competitive N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist 3-[(R)-2-carboxypiperazin-4yl]-propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP). 8-OH-DPAT (0.3 and 3 microm) had no effect on basal extracellular GLU, but the higher concentration completely abolished the rise of extracellular GLU induced by CPP. CPP also increased extracellular serotonin (5-HT) in the mPFC (+50%) and this effect was antagonized by 3 microm 8-OH-DPAT which, by itself, had no effect on basal 5-HT release. The effects of 8-OH-DPAT on extracellular GLU and 5-HT were reversed by the 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY100 635 (100 microm), indicating a selective involvement of 5-HT(1A) receptors. WAY100 635 had no effect by itself. These results show that the stimulation of cortical 5-HT(1A) receptors prevents the CPP-evoked rise of extracellular GLU and 5-HT and suggest that these effects may contribute to the ability of intracortical 8-OH-DPAT to counteract cognitive deficits caused by the blockade of NMDA receptors.     

Excitatory Amino Acid Receptors in the Ventral Tegmental Area Regulate Dopamine Release in the Ventral Striatum

Abstract: The role of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in tonic and phasic regulation of dopamine release in the ventral striatum was investigated. Microdialysis in conscious rats was used to assess dopamine release primarily from the nucleus accumbens shell region of the ventral striatum while applying EAA antagonists or agonists to the VTA. Infusion of the AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (25 and 100 µ M ) into the VTA did not affect dopamine release in the ventral striatum. In contrast, intra-VTA infusion of the NMDA receptor antagonist 2-amino-5-phosphopentanoic acid (100 and 500 µ M ) dose-dependently decreased the striatal release of dopamine. Intra-VTA application of the ionotropic EAA receptor agonists NMDA and AMPA dose-dependently (10 and 100 µ M ) increased dopamine efflux in the ventral striatum. However, infusion of 50 or 500 µ M trans -(±)-1-amino-1,3-cyclopentanedicarboxylic acid (ACPD), a metabotropic EAA receptor agonist, did not significantly affect these levels. These data suggest that NMDA receptors in the VTA exert a tonic excitatory influence on dopamine release in the ventral striatum. Furthermore, dopamine neurotransmission in this region may be enhanced by activation of NMDA and AMPA receptors, but not ACPD-sensitive metabotropic receptors, located in the VTA. These data further suggest that EAA regulation of dopamine release primarily occurs in the VTA as opposed to presynaptically at the terminal level.     

In Vivo Assessment of Dopamine Uptake in Rat Medial Prefrontal Cortex: Comparison with Dorsal Striatum and Nucleus Accumbens

Abstract: In vivo electrochemistry was used to characterize dopamine clearance in the medial prefrontal cortex and to compare it with clearance in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens. When calibrated amounts of dopamine were pressure-ejected into the cortex from micropipettes adjacent to the recording electrodes, transient and reproducible dopamine signals were detected. The local application of the selective uptake inhibitors GBR-12909, desipramine, and fluoxetine before the application of dopamine indicated that at the lower recording depths examined (2.5–5.0 mm below the brain surface), locally applied dopamine was cleared from the extracellular space primarily by the dopamine transporter. The norepinephrine transporter played a greater role at the more superficial recording sites (0.5–2.25 mm below the brain surface). To compare clearance of dopamine in the medial prefrontal cortex (deeper sites only), striatum, and nucleus accumbens, varying amounts of dopamine were locally applied in all three regions of individual animals. The signals recorded from the cortex were of greater amplitude and longer time course than those recorded from the striatum or accumbens (per picomole of dopamine applied), indicating less efficient dopamine uptake in the medial prefrontal cortex. The fewer number of transporters in the medial prefrontal cortex may be responsible, in part, for this difference, although other factors may also be involved. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that regulation of dopaminergic function is unique in the medial prefrontal cortex.     

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Stimulates Catecholamine Release in Hypothalamus and Prefrontal Cortex in Freely Moving Rats as Assessed by Microdialysis

Abstract: In vivo microdialysis was used to measure changes in extracellular concentrations of catecholamines and indoleamines in freely moving rats in response to administration of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Dialysis probes were placed stereotaxically in either the medial hypothalamus or the medial prefrontal cortex. We used a repeated-measures design in which each rat received artificial CSF or one dose of CRF 3–4 h apart, and each subject was retested with the same treatments in the reverse order 5–7 days later. With the dialysis probe in the hypothalamus, intracerebroventricular administration of CRF (17 or 330 pmol) dose-dependently increased dialysate concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and all their measurable catabolites except normetanephrine. The effects on NE were substantially greater than those on DA. Dialysate concentrations of serotonin could not be measured reliably, but those of its catabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, were also elevated. Concentrations of NE and DA were elevated within the first one or two (20 min) collection periods, with a peak response at ∼ 1–2 h. Dialysate concentrations of catecholamines and metabolites normally returned to baseline within 3 h. Similar data were obtained with dialysis probes in the medial prefrontal cortex after intracerebroventricular administration of 17 or 167 pmol of CRF, except that the increases in DA exceeded those of NE in this region. Intraperitoneal administration of CRF (1 nmol) similarly elevated dialysate concentrations of NE, DA, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and all catecholamine catabolites except normetanephrine in both medial hypothalamus and medial prefrontal cortex. These results support earlier neurochemical data suggesting that CRF administered both centrally and peripherally stimulates the release of both DA and NE in the brain.     

Tandospirone potentiates the fluoxetine-induced increases in extracellular dopamine via 5-HT(1A) receptors in the rat medial frontal cortex.

Recent clinical studies suggest that 5-HT(1A) receptor agonists, including buspirone, may have an antidepressant effect and potentiate the efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) in major depressive disorders. In the present study, we investigated the effect of tandospirone, a highly potent and selective 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist, on dopamine release and potentiation of fluoxetine-induced dopamine outflow in the medial frontal cortex using microdialysis in freely moving rats. Intraperitoneal injection of tandospirone (5 mg/kg) increased dopamine release to about 190% of basal levels. Pretreatment with the selective 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist, WAY 100635 (1mg/kg), blocked the effect of tandospirone. Local application of WAY 100635 (10 microM) via microdialysis probe antagonized the increase in dopamine release in the medial frontal cortex induced by systemic injection of tandospirone. Fluoxetine (10 mg/kg) also increased dopamine release in the medial frontal cortex, to 200% of basal levels, and the simultaneous administration of tandospirone and fluoxetine increased the release to 380%. These results indicate that tandospirone potentiates the fluoxetine-induced increase in dopamine release via 5-HT(1A) receptors in the rat medial frontal cortex, and suggest that tandospirone may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of depression.     

Increase of Extracellular Glutamate and Expression of Fos-Like Immunoreactivity in the Ventral Tegmental Area in Response to Electrical Stimulation of the Prefrontal Cortex

Abstract: Electrical stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex caused glutamate release in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of freely moving animals. Cathodal stimulation was given through monopolar electrodes in 0.1-ms pulses at an intensity of 300 µA and frequencies of 4–120 Hz. Glutamate was measured in 10-min perfusate samples by HPLC coupled with fluorescence detection following precolumn derivatization with o -phthaldialdehyde/β-mercaptoethanol. The stimulation-induced glutamate release was frequency dependent and was blocked by the infusion of the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin (10 µ M ) through the dialysis probe. The stimulation also induced bilateral Fos-like immunoreactivity in ventral tegmental neurons, with a significantly greater number of Fos-positive cells on the stimulated side. These findings add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that the medial prefrontal cortex regulates dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens via its projection to dopamine cell bodies in the VTA.     

D1-D2 dopamine receptor interaction within the nucleus accumbens mediates long-loop negative feedback to the ventral tegmental area (VTA)

The objective of the present study was to examine the effects of perfusion of dopamine (DA) D1- and D2-like receptor agonists in the nucleus accumbens (ACB) on the long-loop negative feedback regulation of mesolimbic somatodendritic DA release in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of Wistar rats employing ipsilateral dual probe in vivo microdialysis. Perfusion of the ACB for 60 min with the D1-like receptor agonist SKF 38393 (SKF, 1-100 microM) dose-dependently reduced the extracellular levels of DA in the ACB, whereas the extracellular levels of DA in the VTA were not changed. Similarly, application of the D2-like receptor agonist quinpirole (Quin, 1-100 microM) through the microdialysis probe in the ACB reduced the extracellular levels of DA in the ACB in a concentration-dependent manner, whereas extracellular levels of DA in the VTA were not altered. Co-application of SKF (100 microM) and Quin (100 microM) produced concomitant reductions in the extracellular levels of DA in the ACB and VTA. The reduction in extracellular levels of DA in the ACB and VTA produced by co-infusion of SKF and Quin was reversed in the presence of either 100 microM SCH 23390 (D1-like antagonist) or 100 microM sulpiride (D2-like antagonist). Overall, the results suggest that (a) activation of dopamine D1- or D2-like receptors can independently regulate local terminal DA release in the ACB, whereas stimulation of both subtypes is required for activation of the negative feedback pathway to the VTA.     

激活mGlu5通过MAPK信号通路调节肝癌细胞HepG2生长

代谢型谷氨酸受体5（mGlu5）与神经元存活及脑肿瘤发生关系密切.近年发现,mGlu5在肝组织中有表达,并且在肝的病理过程中发挥重要的调节作用.而 mGlu5 是否在肝癌中起作用,目前尚未见报道.本研究选用代谢型谷氨酸受体特异性激动剂二羟基苯甘氨酸(dihydroxyphenylglycine,DHPG)处理肝癌细胞HepG2,从而探讨激活mGlu5对肝癌细胞生长的影响及其机制.结果显示,激活mGlu5能够促进HepG2细胞生长,并激活ERK/JNK通路,抑制p38通路,进而激活转录因子CREB/Elk1和NF-κB.本文揭示了MAPK通路可能参与mGlu5对肝癌细胞生长的调控,为临床提供以mGlu5作为药物靶位点的肝癌治疗新思路.     

Acute Effects of Typical and Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs on the Release of Dopamine from Prefrontal Cortex, Nucleus Accumbens, and Striatum of the Rat: An In Vivo Microdialysis Study

In vivo microdialysis has been used to study the acute effects of antipsychotic drugs on the extracellular level of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens, striatum, and prefrontal cortex of the rat. (-)-Sulpiride (20, 50, and 100 mg/kg i.v.) and haloperidol (0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg i.v.) enhanced the outflow of dopamine in the striatum and nucleus accumbens. In the medial prefrontal cortex, (-)-sulpiride at all doses tested did not significantly affect the extracellular level of dopamine. The effect of haloperidol was also attenuated in the medial prefrontal cortex; 0.1 mg/kg did not increase the outflow of dopamine and the effect of 0.5 mg/kg haloperidol was of shorter duration in the prefrontal cortex than that observed in striatum and nucleus accumbens. The atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine (5 and 10 mg/kg) increased the extracellular concentration of dopamine in all three regions. In contrast to the effects of sulpiride and haloperidol, that of clozapine in the medial prefrontal cortex was profound. These data suggest that different classes of antipsychotic drugs may have distinct effects on the release of dopamine from the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical terminals.     

Cellular distribution of AMPA receptor subunits and mGlu5 following acute and repeated administration of morphine or methamphetamine

Ionotropic AMPA receptors (AMPAR) and metabotropic glutamate group I subtype 5 receptors (mGlu5) mediate neuronal and behavioral effects of abused drugs. mGlu5 stimulation increases expression of striatal‐enriched tyrosine phosphatase isoform 61 (STEP₆₁) which internalizes AMPARs. We determined the rat brain profile of these proteins using two different classes of abused drugs, opiates, and stimulants. STEP₆₁ levels, and cellular distribution/expression of AMPAR subunits (GluA1, GluA2) and mGlu5, were evaluated via a protein cross‐linking assay in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and ventral pallidum (VP) harvested 1 day after acute, or fourteen days after repeated morphine (8 mg/kg) or methamphetamine (1 mg/kg) (treatments producing behavioral sensitization). Acute morphine decreased GluA1 and GluA2 surface expression in mPFC and GluA1 in NAc. Fourteen days after repeated morphine or methamphetamine, mGlu5 surface expression increased in VP. In mPFC, mGlu5 were unaltered; however, after methamphetamine, STEP₆₁ levels decreased and GluA2 surface expression increased. Pre‐treatment with a mGlu5‐selective negative allosteric modulator, blocked methamphetamine‐induced behavioral sensitization and changes in mPFC GluA2 and STEP₆₁. These data reveal (i) region‐specific distinctions in glutamate receptor trafficking between acute and repeated treatments of morphine and methamphetamine, and (ii) that mGlu5 is necessary for methamphetamine‐induced alterations in mPFC GluA2 and STEP₆₁.