Variation of the mitochondrial DNA control region in the populations of southern form of Dolly Varden (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salvelinus malma krascheninnikovi</Emphasis>) from Sakhalin

Analysis of a 551-bp segment of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 23 individuals from nine populations of Dolly Varden from Sakhalin and three individuals from the Shikaribetsu Lake (Hokkaido) revealed the presence of seven haplotypes of southern form, along with one haplotype of northern form of Dolly Varden. All seven haplotypes of southern Dolly Varden were earlier described in the populations from Hokkaido. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) based on the haplotype frequencies, performed using literature data, suggested that, during the glacial epoch, there were three regional population groups of Dolly Varden (from eastern and western coasts of Sakhalin, and from Southern Primorye). Population groups from Sakhalin and Primorye were clearly separated. The differences between two Sakhalin population groups in the mtDNA haplotype frequencies were not statistically significant. However, relative to the earlier obtained data on microsatellite loci, these differences were statistically significant. For the populations of Sakhalin Dolly Varden, the data on mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA variation supplement each other.     

Genetic differentiation among chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum), from Primorye and Sakhalin

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was examined in six wild populations of chum salmon ( Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum) distributed over the Primorye Region which extends approximately 1000 km along the Sea of Japan coast, and six populations from Sakhalin, using restriction enzyme analysis. By means of two restriction enzymes ( Bam HI and Eco 81I) eight mtDNA clonal lines were revealed in the 346 chum salmon studied. Mitochondrial DNA variants grouped the fish into two major clusters representing the Primorye and Sakhalin regions. Analysis of different chum salmon generations showed stability in the temporal population genetic structure in the three Primorye populations studied, but instability in the Sakhalin population of the Naiba River. We succeeded in detecting four major mtDNA clonal variants in Primorye chum salmon. The geographic distribution of clonal frequencies in Primorye populations has a clinal U-shape associated with the north-south axis of the Primorye region. On the whole, Sakhalin populations are less heterogeneous than Primorye ones. Two hatchery-seeded stocks from south west Sakhalin showed no mtDNA clonal variation.     

Biogeographical history of northeastern Asiatic soricine shrews (insectivora, mammalia)

A hypothetical biogeographical history of northeastern Asiatic soricine shrews in the late Quaternary was developed by integrating their present distributions, fossil records, a hypothetical phylogeny, and geological investigations. First, a biological area cladogram of the northeastern Asiatic region was constructed by applying the vicariance hypothesis to the phylogeny of thecaecutiens/shinto group, a monophyletic group proposed by Ohdachi et al. (1997). Comparing the biological area cladogram with a geological hypothesis by Ohshima (1990,1991,1992), we hypothesized a geographical history of northeastern Asia. Species were then located on the dendrogram of the geographical history, referring to the present distributions, fossil records, and phylogeny of shrews. According to our hypothesis, higher species diversity of the northern region of northeastern Asia (Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and Eastern Siberia) was achieved by several series of colonizations and habitat expansion. On the other hand, the shrew communities of the southern region (Honshu, Sado, Shikoku, and Kyushu) were created by extinction and isolation followed by speciation.     

Mitochondrial DNA Distinction of Northeastern China Roe Deer, Siberian Roe Deer, and European Roe Deer, to Clarify the Taxonomic Status of Northeastern China Roe Deer

Partial sequences of the mitochondrial control region of northeastern China roe deer were analyzed to determine the degree of genetic diversity. Fourteen haplotypes were observed. The haplotype diversity was high (h = 0.872), nucleotide diversity was medium (p _i = 0.0108), and the average Tamura–Nei nucleotide distance among them was 1.9%, indicating that genetic diversity of roe deer from northeastern China was relatively high and that the effective population size was large historically. To clarify the northeastern China roe deer's taxonomic status, these 14 haplotypes were compared with 31 haplotypes published in Genbank from Europe, Siberia, and Korea. The average genetic distance between haplogroups of northeastern China and European roe deer (5.8%) was more than twice that between northeastern China and Siberian roe deer (2.7%), indicating sufficient variation to consider roe deer of northeastern China and Siberia as a single species (Capreolus pygargus), distinct from European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). This is the first presentation of mtDNA data for roe deer in northeastern China, which will be helpful in investigations of genetic diversity and clarifications of the taxonomic status of roe deer in the whole of China.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation pattern in larches of Eastern Siberia and the Far East

Genetic variation has been studied in 32 Eastern Siberian and Far Eastern populations of Larix Mill. with the use of three mitochondrial markers based on polymerase chain reaction. Eight multilocus haplotypes with a heterogeneous spatial distribution (G _ST = 0.788, N _ST = 0.829) have been found, which indicates limited gene flows between populations. Several geographic regions with specific larch haplotype sets have been determined: (1) Japan, (2) southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, (3) Primor’e and Korea, (4) Kamchatka, and (5) Eastern Siberia and the northern Far East. The haplotype fixed in the Kamchatka is absent in the Magadan oblast or Chukotka but is present in southern Primor’e and Sakhalin Island. This may be explained by either the postglacial recolonization of Kamchatka by larch that spread from Primor’e through Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands or its survival through the last glacial maximum in the Kamchatka Peninsula. The biogeography of larch and other woody plants indicate that boreal species have a common history of the colonization of Kamchatka.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation pattern in larches of Eastern Siberia and the Far East

Genetic variation has been studied in 32 Eastern Siberian and Far Eastern populations of Larix Mill. with the use of three mitochondrial markers based on polymerase chain reaction. Eight multilocus haplotypes with a heterogeneous spatial distribution (G(ST) = 0.788, N(ST) = 0.829) have been found, which indicates limited gene flows between populations. Several geographic regions with specific larch haplotype sets have been determined: (1) Japan, (2) southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, (3) Primor'e and Korea, (4) Kamchatka, and (5) Eastern Siberia and the northern Far East. The haplotype fixed in the Kamchatka is absent in the Magadan oblast or Chukotka but is present in southern Primor'e and Sakhalin Island. This may be explained by either the postglacial recolonization of Kamchatka by larch that spread from Primor'e through Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands or its survival through the last glacial maximum in the Kamchatka Peninsula. The biogeography of larch and other woody plants indicate that boreal species have a common history of the colonization of Kamchatka.     

Phylogeography and demographic history of Siberian rubythroat <Emphasis Type="Italic">Luscinia calliope</Emphasis>

Phylogeographic analysis on the basis of individual marker variability provides insight into the history and mechanisms of the range formation of widely distributed species. A preliminary study of the mtDNA cytochrome b gene in Siberian rubythroat Luscinia calliope revealed the existence of three well-differentiated haplogroups, including one western and two eastern haplogroups. Continuing the study of the genetic markers of the species, we found that, in western part of the range, represented by the nominative geographic race, there were almost exclusively haplotypes of western group. In eastern populations of Khabarovsk krai, Chukotka, Kamchatka, and Sakhalin, haplotypes of all groups are mixed in different proportions. At the same time, the populations of Hokkaido and Iturup islands are exclusively represented by individuals with eastern haplotypes. Comparison of the identified nuclear copies of mitochondrial genes and construction of the phylogenetic network of haplotypes on the basis of cloned and initial sequences showed that two groups of eastern haplotypes (one of which geographically corresponded to L. c. anadyrensis and L. c. camtschatkensis and the second corresponded to L. c. sachalinensis) originated from nuclear pseudogenes of L. c. calliope through intergenomic recombination. In this regard, we propose a new hypothesis for the establishment of the modern range of this species, according to which the Siberian rubythroat dispersal from South Siberia occurred in two stages. At first, the species expanded its range to the northeast in the direction of the Kolyma and Koryak uplands. During the settling of these areas of northeastern Asia, a recombination between the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA took place, which led to the forming of a new haplotype, which was widespread in the emerging breeding populations. Birds with recombinant haplotypes populated the territories of Chukotka and Kamchatka, and then gradually occupied the Kuril Islands and, eventually, reached Hokkaido. At the next stage, Siberian rubythroat, probably, appeared in Sakhalin Island during spring migration, where some individuals stopped for breeding. Settling of the island was accompanied by similar intergenomic recombination and rapid fixation of a new recombinant haplotype with its subsequent spread across Sakhalin. The insular way of dispersal is completely repeated by modern migrants.     

Cryptic diversity in a Eurasian water snake (Natrix tessellata, Serpentes: Colubridae): Evidence from mitochondrial sequence data and nuclear ISSR-PCR fingerprinting

The dice snake, Natrix tessellata (Laurenti, 1768), is a suitable study organism to address questions of Eurasian phylogeography due to its wide Palearctic distribution. We analysed complete mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences and nuclear ISSR-PCR fingerprints of more than 300 specimens representing nearly the entire geographic range. Nine major mitochondrial lineages were discovered based on mtDNA sequences. The three most basal lineages comprised populations from Iran, Jordan–Egypt, and Greece, respectively. Other lineages were associated with samples from the Turkish peninsula, the Caucasus, the Aral Sea, and eastern Kazakhstan. A sister-group relationship was found between two lineages from Crete and the European mainland. Assuming an evolutionary rate of 1.35% sequence divergence per million years, among-lineage p-distances of 1.7–8.4% suggest that intraspecific differentiation might date back as far as the Miocene/Pliocene transition 5–6 million years ago. The pattern of genetic differentiation in mitochondrial phylogeny with regard to Asia Minor and the region of the Aral Sea was not congruent with the results of the nuclear ISSR-PCR analyses, and suggests admixing within some mtDNA clades at contact zones. The taxonomic implications of the high intraspecific variation in the dice snake are discussed.     

Phylogeography and genetic structure of disjunct Salix arbutifolia populations in Japan

Disjunct geographic distributions of boreal plant species at the southern edges of their ranges are expected to result in low genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation in the disjunct populations. This prediction was tested in a riparian willow, Salix arbutifolia, distributed in the northeastern Eurasian continent and the Sakhalin, Hokkaido, and Honshu Islands, using chloroplast DNA haplotypes and nuclear microsatellite genotypes. Hokkaido and Honshu populations shared a chloroplast haplotype identical to a closely related species, S. cardiophylla. This haplotype was divergent from haplotypes in the Eurasian continent (Primorsky) and the Sakhalin Island. In the nuclear microsatellites, most Hokkaido populations were genetically closer to Primorsky populations than to Sakhalin populations in spite of the geographical vicinity between Sakhalin and Hokkaido. The unexpected genetic divergence between Sakhalin and Hokkaido implies a complicated history of migration and colonization. The most peripheral populations in Honshu had the lowest genetic diversity and were most differentiated from the others. Thus, low genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation at the range periphery suggest substantial effects of genetic drift on genetic structure in the disjunct populations of Salix arbutifolia at the southern edge of its range.     

A comparative phytosociological study of the subalpine coniferous forests in northeastern Asia

Previous classification systems of the subalpine coniferous forests, belonging to the class Vaccinio-Piceetea Br.-Bl. 1939, in northeastern Asia were reviewed based on phytosociological data of Korea and Japan. A new order, the Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceetalia jezoensis was proposed for the subalpine coniferous forests in the continental part of northeastern Asia. Its distribution range and subordinate vegetation units are as follows:Order Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceetalia jezoensis ordo nov.In Korea:Alliance Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceion jezoensis Song 1991Association Taxo-Pinetum pumilae Song et Nakanishi 1985Association Thujo-Abietetum nephrolepidis Song 1991Association Abieti koreanae-Piceetum jezoensis Song 1991Alliance Abietion koreanae Song 1991Association Saso-Abietetum koreanae Song et Nakanishi 1985Association Betulo saitoanae-Abietetum koreanae (Song et Nakanishi 1985) em. Song 1991In northeast China and Maritime Province of Siberia, U.S.S.R.: (one separate alliance level or the same alliance as Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceion jezoensis)Formation Abies nephrolepis form. (Wu 1980)Formation Picea jezoensis-Abies nephrolepis form. (Wu 1980)Generally the Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceetalia jezoensis develops under the dry and cool continental climate and on the monophylogenic Dark Brown Conifer Soil Group derived mostly from granite and granitic gneiss. The subalpine or subarctic coniferous forests in Hokkaido, Sakhalin and Southern Kuriles may also belong to the Abieti nephrolepidis-Piceetalia jezoensis because of their floristic composition and the historical relevance of plant geography. The subordinate vegetation units are as follows:Alliance Piceion jezoensis Suz.-Tok. ex Jinno et Suzuki 1973Association Piceo-Abietetum sachalinensis Ohba 1967Association Piceetum glehnii Suz.-Tok. ex Miyawaki 1988The Abieti veitchii-Piceetalia jezoensis hondoensis Miyawaki et al. 1968 seems to fit only to the subalpine coniferous forests of Honshu and Shikoku of the Japanese Archipelago.     

Genetic Differentiation Inferred from Data on Restriction Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in the Northern and Southern Forms of the Dolly Varden Char

Restriction fragment length polymorphism of the ATPase6/ND4L and cytochrome b regions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was studied in populations of the northern and southern forms of the Dolly Varden char Salvelinus malma from the Asian coast of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Seven genotypes of mtDNA were found, of which AAAA/ACCC and BBAC/ACEC characterize the northern and southern groups of populations, respectively. By the identity test, the studied populations of the Chukotka and Kamchatka peninsulas and the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk significantly differed from the studied populations of Sakhalin Island, Primorye, and Kuril Islands.     

Molecular phylogeography of two sibling species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eurema</Emphasis> butterflies

The common yellow butterfly Eurema hecabe is widely distributed in East Asia, and is one of the most burdensome species for taxonomists due to the numerous geographic and seasonal wing colour patterns. Moreover, within this species, individuals with a yellow wing fringe that occur in temperate regions of Japan (Y type) proved to be biologically different from others that occur widely in subtropical regions of Japan and all over East Asia (B type). To unveil the genetic variation within and between the two types, a total of 50 butterflies collected at 18 geographic localities in East Asia were examined for nucleotide sequence variation of three mitochondrial regions: cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), cytochrome c oxidase subunit III (COIII) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5). In addition, they were also examined for infection status with the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia. The three mitochondrial sequences consistently showed that (i) Y type and B type were highly divergent, (ii) nucleotide variation within B type was very small although sampled from a geographically wide range, and (iii) a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and Wolbachia infection status.     

Phylogeography of a freshwater sculpin, Cottus nozawae, from the northeastern part of Honshu Island, Japan

 The fluvial sculpin, Cottus nozawae, is a coldwater-adapted fish distributed in Hokkaido Island and the northeastern part of Honshu Island (Tohoku District), Japan. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region sequencing was used to investigate the geographic distribution of genetic variation and phylogeography of C. nozawae. Most populations possessed unique haplotypes, few being shared across river systems. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences of the mtDNA control region and adjacent regions of C. nozawae revealed three distinct phylogenetic groups that differed by 3.05% to 3.11%, corresponding to distinct geographic regions, Hokkaido Island, northern Tohoku District, and Yamagata Prefecture (southwestern Tohoku District), respectively. The divergence times of three groups were estimated to be about 1.5 million years ago by applying a general rate for mtDNA, suggesting that the divergence among them might have occurred in the early Pleistocene. Divergence among the haplotypes within the group from the northern Tohoku District was also high (1.84%), no haplotypes being shared by local populations in different river systems in this region. Local populations from a single river system in this region comprise a distinct lineage that differed from other river systems. Such genetically divergent population structures among the different regions and river systems are considered to have resulted mainly from long-term isolation and restricted gene flow among river systems, probably promoted by the fluvial benthic life history and low dispersal ability of this species. Received: April 12, 2001 / Revised: December 1, 2001 / Accepted: December 19, 2001     

Phylogeography of the Asian lesser white-toothed shrew, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crocidura shantungensis</Emphasis>, in East Asia: role of the Korean Peninsula as refugium for small mammals

Many peninsulas in the temperate zone played an important role as refugia of various flora and fauna, and the southern Korean Peninsula also served as a refugium for many small mammals in East Asia during the Pleistocene. The Asian lesser white-toothed shrew, Crocidura shantungensis, is a widely distributed species in East Asia, and is an appropriate model organism for exploring the role of the Korean Peninsula as a refugium of small mammals. Here, we investigated phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity based on the entire sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (1140 bp). A Bayesian tree for 98 haplotypes detected in 228 C. shantungensis specimens from East Asia revealed the presence of three major groups with at least 5 subgroups. Most haplotypes were distributed according to their geographic proximity. Pairwise F_ST’s and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed a high degree of genetic differentiation and variance among regions as well as among populations within region, implying little gene flow among local populations. Genetic evidence from South Korean islands, Jeju-do Island of South Korea, and Taiwan leads us to reject the hypothesis of recent population expansion. We observed unique island-type genetic characteristics consistent with geographic isolation and resultant genetic drift. Phylogeographic inference, together with estimates of genetic differentiation and diversity, suggest that the southern most part the Korean Peninsula, including offshore islands, played an important role as a refugium for C. shantungensis during the Pleistocene. However, the presence of several refugia on the mainland of northeast Asia is also proposed.     

Genetic structure of Schrenck newt <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salamandrella schrenckii</Emphasis> populations by mitochondrial cytochrome <Emphasis Type="Italic">b</Emphasis> variation

The nucleotide sequence variation of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was studied in Schrenck newt Salamandrella schrenckii (Strauch, 1870) from populations of Primorye and the Khabarovsk region. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two haplotype clusters, southern cluster 1 and northern cluster 2, with a divergence of 3%. Analysis of the mtDNA and cytochrome b amino acid sequence variations made it possible to assume that the modern range of Schrenck newt was colonized from south Primorye northwards. In contrast to the southern cluster, the northern one demonstrated all the signs of demographic expansion (a unimodal distribution of pairwise nucleotide differences, specific results of tests for selective neutrality of mtDNA variation, and a good correspondence of genetic parameters to those expected from demographic expansion models).     

Genetic relationships among the Japanese and Korean striated spined loach complex (Cobitidae: Cobitis) and their phylogenetic positions

The striata complex, a group of spined loaches included in the genus Cobitis and characterized by a striped coloration pattern on the lateral midline, is distributed in rivers in northeastern Asia to western Japan. The complex comprises 2 continental species (Cobitis tetralineata and Cobitis lutheri) and 3 Japanese races of species rank (large race, middle race, and small race), the small race further comprising 6 local forms of subspecific rank (Tokai form, Biwa form, Yodo form, Sanyo form, San-in form, and Kyushu form). Previous karyological studies have revealed that the large race is an allotetraploid, the others being diploid. In this study, mitochondrial (mt) DNA analyses were conducted for 30 diploid populations of the Cobitis striata complex from Japan and Korea to examine: (1) their phylogenetic relationships and the position of the complex among the major lineages of Cobitis; and (2) the genetic relationships among the Japanese and Korean populations. The results, based on cytochrome b sequences (724 base pairs) analyzed with those of the main lineage of European and Japanese Cobitis, indicated that the striata complex should be considered as a monophyletic group, which evolved in northeastern Asia. Initially considered as a subspecies of Cobitis taenia, widely distributed from Europe to Asia, the striata complex does not have a sister-relationship with the former. Although the Korean species C. tetralineata was formerly believed to be closely related to the middle race in Japan, and a second continental species, C. lutheri, closely related to the Kyushu or San-in forms of the small race in Japan, the trees resulting from the present study revealed that the two Korean species were clustered with each other and separated from all Japanese races.     

Taxonomic review of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cottiusculus</Emphasis> (Cottoidei: Cottidae) with description of a new species from the Sea of Japan

A taxonomic review of the cottid genus Cottiusculus Jordan and Starks 1904 established three species, C. nihonkaiensis sp. nov., C. schmidti, and C. gonez. Cottiusculus nihonkaiensis sp. nov., which had been previously confused with C. schmidti, is described on the basis of 32 specimens (44.8–77.9 mm, SL) collected from the Sea of Japan. The new species is very similar to C. schmidti in having a curved barbless uppermost preopercular spine and the lateral line extending past the caudal fin base, but is distinguishable as follows: nasal spines simple or sometimes weakly bicuspid (vs. deeply bicuspid in C. schmidti); first dorsal fin not elongated in either males or females (vs. elongated in males); ventral lateral and lateral line cirri present (vs. absent). The former is known from the Sea of Japan coasts of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula, and Volcano Bay, Hokkaido, and the latter from the Pacific coast of Tohoku District, Japan. Cottiusculus gonez, known from the Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk and Pacific coast of Hokkaido, is characterized by having a simple nasal spine, the uppermost preopercular spine almost straight with two small cusps dorsally, posterior cusp barbed, and the lateral line almost reaching to the caudal fin base. A lectotype of C. gonez is designated here. Sequence differences in the cytochrome b gene among the above three species of Cottiusculus are also presented.     

Patterns of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA variation in Iberian populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Emys orbicularis</Emphasis> (Emydidae): conservation implications

The European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) is threatened and in decline in several regions of its natural range, due to habitat loss combined with population fragmentation. In this work, we have focused our efforts on studying the genetic diversity and structure of Iberian populations with a fine-scale sampling (254 turtles in 10 populations) and a representation from North Africa and Balearic island populations. Using both nuclear and mitochondrial markers (seven microsatellites, ∼1048 bp nDNA and ∼1500 bp mtDNA) we have carried out phylogenetic and demographic analyses. Our results show low values of genetic diversity at the mitochondrial level although our microsatellite dataset revealed relatively high levels of genetic variability with a latitudinal genetic trend decreasing from southern to northern populations. A moderate degree of genetic differentiation was estimated for Iberian populations (genetic distances, F _ST values and clusters in the Bayesian analysis). The results in this study combining mtDNA and nDNA, provide the most comprehensive population genetic data for E. orbicularis in the Iberian Peninsula. Our results suggest that Iberian populations within the Iberian–Moroccan lineage should be considered as a single subspecies with five management units, and emphasize the importance of habitat management rather than population reinforcement (i.e. captive breeding and reintroduction) in this long-lived species.     

Occurrence of Sapindopsis (Platanaceae) in the Cretaceous of Eurasia

Three new species of the genus Sapindopsis Fontaine from Central Asia and western Siberia are described: S. neuburgae (Vachr.) Golovn., comb. nov., S. janschinii (Vachr.) Golovn., comb. nov., and S. kryshtofovichii (I. Lebed.) Golovn., comb. nov. Geographical and stratigraphic analyses have shown that the genus evolved in Eurasia from the Middle Albian to the Cenomanian, and was mostly restricted to the subtropics of the Euro-Sinian phytogeographic area from the Middle East to Russian Primorye and northern China. The are no reliable records of Sapindopsis from Europe. The migration of Sapindopsis from North America to Eurasia through the Bering Land Bridge was most probably related to the Early-Middle Albian climatic optimum.     

Human-mediated introgression of exotic chukar (Alectoris chukar, Galliformes) genes from East Asia into native Mediterranean partridges

Mediterranean red-legged (Alectoris rufa) and rock (Alectoris graeca) partridge populations are affected by genetic pollution. The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), a species only partly native to Europe, is the most frequently introgressive taxon detected in the genome of hybrid partridges. Both theoretical (evolutionary) and practical (resources management) matters spur to get insight into the geographic origin of the A. chukar hybridizing swarm. The phenotypic A. rufa populations colonizing the easternmost part of the distribution range of this species, the islands of Elba (Italy) and Corsica (France), were investigated. The analysis of both mitochondrial (mtDNA: Cytochrome-b gene plus Control Region: 2,250 characters) and nuclear (Short Tandem Repeats, STR; Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA, RAPD) genomes of 25 wild (Elba) and 20 captive (Corsica) partridges, disclosed spread introgression of chukar origin also in these populations. All mtDNA haplotypes of Elba and Corsica partridges along with those we obtained from other A. rufa (total, n = 111: Italy, Spain, France) and A. graeca (n = 6, Italy), were compared with the mtDNA haplotypes of chukars (n = 205) sampled in 20 countries. It was found that the A. chukar genes detected in red-legged (n = 43) and rock partridges (n = 4) of Spain, France and Italy as well as in either introduced (Italy) or native (Greece, Turkey) chukars (n = 35) were all from East Asia. Hence, a well-defined geographic origin of the exotic chukar genes polluting the genome of native Mediterranean A. rufa and A. graeca (inter-specific level) as well as A. chukar (intra-specific level), was demonstrated.