Construction of the phylogenetic model for the genera of the tribe Arctiini (Lepidoptera,Arctiidae) with the SYNAP method

A new scheme of the phylogeny of the tribe Arctiini is proposed. The Western Mediterranean genus Atlantarctia is considered the most primitive one in the tribe; the rest of genera form two large clades Arctia-Pericallia and Gonerda-Platyprepia. The first clade is supposed to have been subjected to radiation in western Eurasia, and the second clade, in Asia and North America in the Palaeogene when the eastern part of Asia was isolated from western Eurasia. Subsequently, most probably in the Neogene-Pleistocene, representatives of both clades spread over the whole Eurasia and North America. The Arctiini fauna of the tundra zone, which includes the genera Acerbia and Pararctia, was formed in Asia and North America, whereas the subboreal fauna (both steppe and nemoral) originated in western Eurasia. The boreal genus Borearctia has most likely also originated in Asia.     

The High Divergence of Two Morphologically Similar Trematode Species of the Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nanophyetus</Emphasis> of Salmonids from the Data of mtDNA <Emphasis Type="Italic">nad1</Emphasis> Gene Sequences

Intestinal flukes of fish (mainly salmonids) belonging to the genus Nanophyetus (Trematoda: Troglotrematidae) are the causative agents of nanophyetiasis, a zoonotic disease of animals and humans, which is widespread in countries in the northern Pacific. Two geographical forms, one from North America and the other from the eastern Eurasia were described within this genus; however, their taxonomic status was debatable. A multilocus analysis of nuclear rDNA sequences applied in this study has shown that these forms are independent nominal species: Nanophyetus salmincola and Nanophyetus schikhobalowi. This study, based on sequencing the mtDNA nad1 gene, has evaluated the genetic variability of N. schikhobalowi from eastern Eurasia (Russia) and compared our data with the results obtained for N. salmincola from North America (United States). The genetic differentiation within the Eurasian sample was 1.4%, that for the North American sample was 0.8%, and differentiation between the samples was 15.5%. High values of genetic divergence and completed sorting of mitochondrial haplotypes confirmed the species independence of the compared geographic forms of Nanophyetus.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cortinarius</Emphasis> sect. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Riederi</Emphasis>: taxonomy and phylogeny of the new section with European and North American distribution

Cortinarius is one of the most species-rich genera of mushroom-forming fungi. Based on phylogenetic and morphological evidence, Cortinarius, sect. Riederi, is introduced at sectional level (= subsect. Riederi sensu Brandrud & Melot). The taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and distribution of not only mainly European but also including some North American taxa of this section are treated, which includes nine species and two varieties. Of these, three taxa are described as new (C. burlinghamiae, C. pallidoriederi and C. argenteolilacinus var. dovrensis). The sect. Riederi species possess morphological features similar to Phlegmacium group(s) and forms a phylogenetically isolated lineage, with no supported affinity to other phlegmacioid groups. Three taxa are known from both Europe and North America, two species are known only from North America and five only from Europe. Altogether, eight of the ten taxa are associated with conifers or northern (boreal-subalpine) deciduous trees (Betula spp.). Only two species occur in more temperate forests (Fagus forests), and no species have so far been found in thermophilous Quercus forests     

Horizontal transmission of a parasitic nematode from a non-native to a native woodwasp?

In eastern North America, the exotic invasive woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, attacks pines (Pinus spp.) and often shares larval habitat with the native woodwasp, Sirex nigricornis. The parasitic nematode, Deladenus siricidicola, has been used widely in the southern hemisphere as a biological control agent because it sterilizes female S. noctilio. This nematode was introduced accidentally to North America along with S. noctilio. Historical reports indicate nematode-woodwasp fidelity: the parasitic nematode, D. siricidicola, exclusively infects S. noctilio, and the native nematode, Deladenus proximus, exclusively infects S. nigricornis. From two sites in southern Ontario, separated by 225 km, we collected woodwasps from three Pinus sylvestris, and identified the nematode species present in the abdomens of infected wasps. Both wasp species co-occurred in all three trees. D. siricidicola was present in the haemocoel, but not inside the eggs, of infected S. noctilio and S. nigricornis. This evidence suggests horizontal transmission of D. siricidicola likely occurred from S. noctilio to S. nigricornis.     

What is the type species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phanerochaete</Emphasis> (Polyporales,Basidiomycota)?

Phanerochaete velutina and the closely related species P. alnea, P. alnea subsp. lubrica, and P. rhodella are identified as distinct species based on morphological criteria and molecular analyses. Besides differences in macroscopic and microscopic basidiocarp features, the taxa differ in distribution and ITS sequence. Phanerochaete alnea is widely distributed in Eurasia and North America, whereas P. alnea subsp. lubrica is limited to the Pacific Coast of North America. Phanerochaete velutina is known from Eurasia and Alaska, and P. rhodella is found in North America only. Nomenclatural problems with the name Phanerochaete P. Karst. are discussed, and type specimens for Thelephora alnea Fr., the generic type of Phanerochaete, and Peniophora karstenii Massee are selected. Phanerochaete alnea, P. alnea subsp. lubrica, and P. velutina are described and illustrated. In addition, the synonymy of Phanerochaete robusta and P. aurantiobadia is confirmed.     

Calyptocarpus vialis and C. wendlandii (Compositae)

RecentlyCalyptocarpus has been considered monotypic, butC. vialis of eastern Mexico proves to be distinct fromC. wendlandii of Central America. A key to these and to the often-misidentifiedSynedrella nodiflora is provided, and all three species are illustrated.     

Inter-species interactions and ecosystem effects of non-indigenous invasive and native tree-killing bark beetles

Frequent bark beetle outbreaks cause biome-scale impacts in boreal and temperate forests worldwide. Despite frequent interceptions at ports of entry, the most aggressive bark beetle species of Ips and Dendroctonus in North America and Eurasia have failed to establish outside their original home continents. Our experiments showed that Ips typographus can breed in six North American spruce species: Engelmann spruce, white spruce¸ Sitka spruce, Lutz spruce, black spruce and red spruce. This suggests that differences between the Eurasian historical host and North American spruce species are not an insurmountable barrier to establishment of this tree-killing species in North America. However, slightly diminished quality of offspring beetles emerged from the North American spruces could reduce the chance of establishment through an Allee effect. The probabilistic nature of invasion dynamics suggests that successful establishments can occur when the import practice allows frequent arrivals of non-indigenous bark beetles (increased propagule load). Model simulations of hypothetical interactions of Dendroctonus rufipennis and I. typographus indicated that inter-species facilitations could result in more frequent and severe outbreaks than those caused by I. typographus alone. The potential effects of such new dynamics on coniferous ecosystems may be dramatic and extensive, including major shifts in forest structure and species composition, increased carbon emissions and stream flow, direct and indirect impacts on wildlife and invertebrate communities, and loss of biodiversity.     

Co-invasion of three Asian earthworms, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Metaphire hilgendorfi</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amynthas agrestis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amynthas tokioensis</Emphasis> in the USA

Earthworm invasions are one of the most serious causes of ecological deterioration in the temperate deciduous forests of North America. Non-native earthworms impact understory vegetation, leaf litter layer, carbon dynamics, nutrient availability, and the associated food webs. Here we report a significant status change and confirm expansion of known range of Amynthas agrestis, one of the most serious invasive species in North America, and two of its close relatives, A. tokioensis and Metaphire hilgendorfi. The three species have never been confirmed to co-occur in North American ecosystems. We examined 1760 earthworms collected from 30 sites across northeastern USA, and identified them using a new morphological key. Our data show that sympatric occurrence of at least two, and often all three, species is more common than having only one species. In addition, A. tokioensis was dominant in many of these earthworm communities. The status change in species composition from only one species to two or three and the shift in dominance are most likely caused by previous incorrect species identification. Our results support expansion of known range of A. tokioensis and M. hilgendorfi northward and westward into states with colder winters. This range expansion may have taken place alongside that of A. agrestis in the last 10–20 years, but has long been overlooked. Altogether, results highlight an urgent need for correct species identification. The recognition of an expanding multi-species system represents a unique opportunity to further evaluate complex interactions among co-invading and resident species, and to investigate whether interspecific interactions have unexpected non-additive impacts on ecological processes.     

Genetic diversity and population structure identify the potential source of the invasive red clover casebearer moth, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coleophora deauratella</Emphasis>, in North America

The red clover casebearer, Coleophora deauratella, is an invasive pest of red clover grown for seed in North America. In 2006, an outbreak in Alberta, Canada was discovered that resulted in significant seed losses, while further invasion threatens the world’s largest red clover forage seed production region in Oregon, USA. Prior to the recent outbreak, C. deauratella was thought to be restricted to eastern North America in its invasive range. We sequenced a 615-bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene, and developed three microsatellite markers to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of C. deauratella in North America and its native range in Europe. We observed signatures of a founder effect in North American populations and a further loss of genetic diversity within Alberta populations. Most genetic differentiation was found between continents, with no evidence of isolation-by-distance within each continent. From the limited number of European populations sampled, a single introduction from Switzerland is the most probable source of North American populations based on similar mitochondrial diversity and lack of population differentiation. Within North America, based on increased genetic diversity compared to the rest of the continent, the first North American record from Ithaca, NY, and the first documented outbreak in southern Ontario in 1989, the initial C. deauratella invasion most likely occurred in southern Ontario, Canada or adjacent states in the USA, followed by transport throughout the continent. This study provides insight into the phylogeographic history of C. deauratella in North America and Europe and may help to identify a regional source of future classical biological control agents.     

Genetic analysis of Japanese and American specimens of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scirpus hattorianus</Emphasis> suggests its introduction from North America

Scirpus hattorianus is a possible alien species in Japan, and a clarification of its unclear taxonomy is required to reveal its origin. It is not known whether the plants initially described from Japan represent the same species distributed in North America. To clarify the origin of the species, we attempted to sequence old specimens collected about 80 years ago using newly designed primer pairs specific for short sequences, including the variable sites. Chloroplast sequences of ndhF were compared among Japanese and North American S. hattorianus, and the closely related species, S. atrovirens, S. flaccidifolius, and S. georgianus. We succeeded in sequencing all samples, and two haplotypes were detected in S. hattorianus: one was unique to the species and the other, detected from specimens potentially collected from the same population as the types, was shared by both North American S. hattorianus and two closely related species, S. atrovirens and S. flaccidifolius. Our results suggest that Japanese S. hattorianus is an alien species that was introduced from North America at least twice.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

New species and records of orbiliaceous fungi from Georgia,USA

Orbilia georgiana and O. renispora are described as new species to science, in addition, O. eucalypti, O. occulta, and O. xanthoguttulata are reported based on collections taken from the state of Georgia, USA. Orbilia xanthoguttulata is a new record for North America. The morphology of all species is described based on both sexual and asexual morphs. Asexual morphs were obtained from ascospore isolates, from which also DNA was extracted and used to amplify rDNA genes (ITS and LSU) for phylogenetic comparison.     

Host specificity of Asian <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysochus</Emphasis> Chevr. in Dej. (Coleoptera,Chrysomelidae: Eumolpinae) and their potential use for biological control of invasive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vincetoxicum</Emphasis> species

Three Asian leaf beetles of the genus Chrysochus were investigated as potential biological control agents of Vincetoxicum rossicum and V. nigrum, invasive weeds in northeastern North America. Chrysochus chinensis and Ch. globicollis were collected from a field host in a different genus and subtribe. Preliminary no-choice laboratory tests with Ch. goniostoma showed that its physiological host range is too broad. Based on these data, we are not considering these three species as potential biological control agents of invasive Vincetoxicum species.     

Genetic Diversity in the Worldwide <Emphasis Type="Italic">Botrychium lunaria</Emphasis> (Ophioglossaceae) Complex,with New Species and New Combinations

The Botrychium lunaria (Ophioglossaceae) complex worldwide includes the named species B. lunaria, B. crenulatum, B. tunux, and B. yaaxudakeit. These species have been distinguished from each other morphologically and genetically. This study further investigates the genetic diversity and geographic distribution of this complex, examining a large number of plants worldwide. Enzyme electrophoresis was used to examine allelic variation of 22 loci for 1574 plants of putative B. lunaria, B. crenulatum and B. tunux from North America, Eurasia, and New Zealand, and B. dusenii from the Falkland Islands. Variation in allelic composition assessed by genetic identity and cluster analysis using the programs PopGene and STRUCTURE as well as morphology and geography indicated that the complex is composed of six distinct entities; two of which warrant recognition as new species, B. neolunaria, endemic to North America, and B. nordicum, sister to the B. lunaria complex, from Iceland and Norway; and a new combination, B. lunaria var. melzeri , endemic to Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. The new taxa are described in this paper. Three entities within B. tunux are discussed but not proposed for recognition at this time. Botrychium lanceolatum, included in this study, is composed of three morphologically and genetically distinct entities warranting taxonomic recognition.     

Can enemy release explain the invasion success of the diploid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leucanthemum vulgare</Emphasis> in North America?

Enemy release is a commonly accepted mechanism to explain plant invasions. Both the diploid Leucanthemum vulgare and the morphologically very similar tetraploid Leucanthemum ircutianum have been introduced into North America. To verify which species is more prevalent in North America we sampled 98 Leucanthemum populations and determined their ploidy level. Although polyploidy has repeatedly been proposed to be associated with increased invasiveness in plants, only two of the populations surveyed in North America were the tetraploid L. ircutianum. We tested the enemy release hypothesis by first comparing 20 populations of L. vulgare and 27 populations of L. ircutianum in their native range in Europe, and then comparing the European L. vulgare populations with 31 L. vulgare populations sampled in North America. Characteristics of the site and associated vegetation, plant performance and invertebrate herbivory were recorded. In Europe, plant height and density of the two species were similar but L. vulgare produced more flower heads than L. ircutianum. Leucanthemum vulgare in North America was 17 % taller, produced twice as many flower heads and grew much denser compared to L. vulgare in Europe. Attack rates by root- and leaf-feeding herbivores on L. vulgare in Europe (34 and 75 %) was comparable to that on L. ircutianum (26 and 71 %) but higher than that on L. vulgare in North America (10 and 3 %). However, herbivore load and leaf damage were low in Europe. Cover and height of the co-occurring vegetation was higher in L. vulgare populations in the native than in the introduced range, suggesting that a shift in plant competition may more easily explain the invasion success of L. vulgare than escape from herbivory.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina versicolor</Emphasis> Fabre: Another case of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina</Emphasis> trans-Atlantic introduction?

Intercontinental introductions are widespread in the genus Spartina, with important ecological and evolutionary consequences. The native or introduced status of Spartina species is then critical with regard to biodiversity assessment, especially for vulnerable Mediterranean coastline ecosystems. Spartina versicolor was first recorded in southern France in 1849, then successively in various places on the European and North-African Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. This species is considered to be either a European native or an invasive species introduced from North America which has a high morphological similarity to the Atlantic American species Spartina patens. We performed extensive sampling of S. versicolor in Europe and North Africa (from natural populations and herbarium collections) and compared these samples to other European and American Spartina species (including S. patens). Chromosome counts were reported for the first time and revealed that S. versicolor is tetraploid (2n = 4x = 40). Phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences did not reveal any molecular variation within S. versicolor. In this species, a single haplotype, that is identical to one haplotype of S. patens, was found in the four chloroplast and the nuclear ribosomal ITS regions investigated. In addition, simple sequence repeat markers were used and revealed a low level of genetic diversity within S. versicolor, suggesting that the introduction of S. versicolor occurred from a narrow genetic pool of S. patens from North America.     

Different dispersal histories of lineages of the earthworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aporrectodea caliginosa</Emphasis> (Lumbricidae,Annelida) in the Palearctic

Earthworms are among the most abundant and ecologically important invasive species, and are therefore a good object for studying genetic processes in invasive populations. Aporrectodea caliginosa is one of the most widespread invasive earthworms in the temperate zone. It is believed to have dispersed from Europe to all continents except Antarctica. It is known that A. caliginosa consists of three genetic lineages, and genetic diversity is high both among and between them. We attempted to use that high genetic diversity to study A. caliginosa dispersal in the Palearctic based on a sample of 40 localities ranging from eastern Europe to the Russian Far East, and to compare our data to other studies on this species in western Europe and North America. Two genetic lineages were found in the studied sample. Only negligible decrease in genetic diversity was observed for the lineage 2 of A. caliginosa from West Europe to the Far East, suggesting multiple human-mediated introductions. In contrast, lineage 3 is abundant in West Europe and Belarus, but is absent from the East European Plain, the Urals, and the Far East. However, it is present in West Siberia, where it has greatly reduced genetic diversity, indicating long-distance dispersal accompanied by a bottleneck event. Thus, although these two lineages of A. caliginosa are morphologically indistinguishable, they have dramatic differences in their distributions and dispersal histories.     

Heteroplasmy due to chloroplast paternal leakage: another insight into <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phragmites</Emphasis> haplotypic diversity in North America

Chloroplasts contain several copies of their DNA, and intra-individual haplotypic variation (heteroplasmy) is common in plants, but unexplored in the cosmopolitan genus Phragmites. The aims of this study were to assess if heteroplasmy due to paternal leakage of the chloroplast occurs in Phragmites and which new insights into the evolutionary history of Phragmites australis in North America can be identified from the heteroplasmic variation. Eight non-native P. australis haplotypes occur in North America and can interbreed with P. australis ssp. americanus and P. australis var. berlandieri, creating opportunities for biparental inheritance of distinctive haplotypes. The polymorphism in the trnT-trnL sequence length revealed seventeen cases of heteroplasmy worldwide, in contact zones of distantly related haplotypes and in known hybrid populations, nine of which occurred in North America. In America, the cloned sequences, combined with nuclear markers, identified recombined haplotypes between native P. australis ssp. americanus and invasive P. australis haplotype M, and between the species P. mauritianus and P. australis, due to chloroplast paternal leakage. The occurrence of heteroplasmy and recombined haplotypes suggest a local origin for some of the rare non-native haplotypes occurring in North America, and plastid leakage events in the evolutionary histories of P. australis ssp. americanus and P. australis var. berlandieri.