城市居民食物氮消费变化及其环境负荷——以厦门市为例

食物消费是城市养分流动的重要环节,以厦门市为例,分析了1988—2009年居民食物氮素消费的变化特点,分析与其变化相关的经济、社会因素,并探讨了居民食物氮素消费变化所带来的环境负荷。研究结果表明,厦门市人均食物氮消费量变化与食物消费量变化并不完全一致,人均氮消费量2000年以前维持在3.29 kg N.人-1.a-1,2000年以后呈现波动性的增长,2004年达到最高值4.00 kg N.人-1.a-1。厦门市食物氮素消费总量增长幅度较大,由1988年的0.54万t增至2009年的1.50万t。同时,粮食在食物氮消费量中所占比例由45.5%下降到15.9%。畜禽肉、奶制品所占比例分别由25.0%和0.4%上升至29.8%和8.8%。通过将相关经济、社会因素与居民食物氮消费量进行相关性分析表明,人均可支配收入、食物价格指数、具有大学学历以上人口比重均与其联系较为密切,呈正相关;恩格尔系数、平均家庭人口数与居民食物氮消费量呈负相关。通过选取1988、1994、2001、2008年分析居民食物氮素消费造成的环境氮负荷发现,由其带来的环境氮负荷量由3509.12t增加至7629.36t,约90%的氮素进入了土壤和水体。其中,进入土壤的氮素占进入环境氮总量的比例由37%增长到60%,进入水体的氮素比例由57%降至35%。     

南京城市化食物生产消费系统氮素流动变化

城市化的发展对食物生产消费过程中氮素的流动产生了一定的影响。以1995—2012年南京市食物生产消费变化为基础,分析了食物生产消费过程中氮素的流动变化及其引起的环境负荷。结果表明,农村和城镇人均食物氮消费量分别由1995年的5.09 kg人~(-1)a~(-1)和3.04 kg人~(-1)a~(-1)下降至2012年的4.11 kg人~(-1)a~(-1)和2.65 kg人~(-1)a~(-1);与1995年相比,南京市食物消费代价降低了39.29%;农田系统和畜禽养殖系统氮素综合利用率由1995年的18.71%增加至2012年的24.34%,整体低于全国水平,大量的氮素进入环境;1995年食物链引起氮素的环境负荷为100.49 Gg N/a,到2012年下降至69.90 Gg N/a,下降了30.44%。南京城市化的发展增加了食物进口,会使食物生产地的氮环境负荷大幅度增加。     

Quantifying Phosphorus Flow Pathways Through Socioeconomic Systems at the County Level in China

Phosphorus (P) is a key factor in aquatic eutrophication, and P contamination has become a common issue worldwide. Many developing countries, including China, have made great efforts in the anti‐P contamination battle. In this article we mainly discuss the P flow in Wuwei, a typical county in China with insufficient wastewater treatment, using the method of static substance flow analysis. We show that characterizing P metabolic pathways and flows at the county level can provide useful information about P pollution. Through complex calculations, we found that Wuwei County released 3,552 metric tons (t) of P into the local aquatic environment in 2008 and that its P load (3.35 kilograms P per capita per year [kg P/cap/yr] or 19.43 kilograms P per hectare per year [kg‐P/ha/yr]) was greater than both the adjoining counties’ and Chaohu City's average levels combined. The agricultural subsystem discharged the largest quantity of P (2,572 t) and had a relatively low production conversion efficiency (32%) and P waste recycling rate (36%). The rural residential and small‐scale livestock breeding systems also accounted for substantial portions of P discharge. Anti‐P contamination efforts should consequently focus on those three subsystems. Based on the results of this case study, we also discuss the feasibility of potential efforts to reduce P contamination.     

The Energetic Metabolism of the European Union and the United States: Decadal Energy Input Time-Series with an Emphasis on Biomass

This article presents an assessment of energy inputs of the European Union (the 15 countries before the 2004 enlargement, abbreviated EU‐15) for the period 1970–2001 and the United States for 1980–2000. The data are based on an energy flow analysis (EFA) that evaluates socioeconomic energy flows in a way that is conceptually consistent with current materials flow analysis (MFA) methods. EFA allows assessment of the total amount of energy required by a national economy; it yields measures of the size of economic systems in biophysical units. In contrast to conventional energy balances, which only include technically used energy, EFA also accounts for socioeconomic inputs of biomass; that is, it also considers food, feed, wood and other materials of biological origin. The energy flow accounts presented in this article do not include embodied energy. Energy flow analyses are relevant for comparisons across modes of subsistence (e.g., agrarian and industrial society) and also to detect interrelations between energy utilization and land use. In the EU‐15, domestic energy consumption (DEC = apparent consumption = domestic extraction plus import minus export) grew from 60 exajoules per year (1 EJ = 10¹⁸ J) in 1970 to 79 EJ/yr in 2001, thus exceeding its territory's net primary production (NPP, a measure of the energy throughput of ecosystems). In the United States, DEC increased from 102 EJ/yr in 1980 to 125 EJ/yr in 2000 and was thus slightly smaller than its NPP. Taken together, the EU‐15 and the United States accounted for about 38% of global technical energy use, 31% of humanity's energetic metabolism, but only 10% of global terrestrial NPP and 11% of world population in the early 1990s. Per capita DEC of the United States is more than twice that of the EU‐15. Calculated according to EFA methods, energy input in the EU and the United States was between one‐fifth and one‐third above the corresponding value reported in conventional energy balances. The article discusses implications of these results for sustainability, as well as future research needs.     

Materials Flow Accounting in Sweden Material Use for National Consumption and for Export

This article presents Swedish economy‐wide material flow accounts for the period 1987‐1998. It also shows possibilities for enhancing the international comparability of aggregated data on material use, by distinguishing between materials used for consumption and export purposes. The direct material input (DMI) is used as an aggregate measure to estimate the amounts of natural resources (except water and air) that are taken from nature into the economy within a year, including imports to and production within the region in question. The division of materials used for consumption and export purposes avoids double counting trade flows when DMI is applied to a group of countries. The annual DMI in Sweden for 1997‐1998, including production and imports, amounts to 24 to 27 metric tons per capita (t/c). The fossil fuel input varies only slightly over the period, from 3.2 t/c in 1991 to 3.6 t/c in 1996, a level deemed unsustainable by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. The input of renewable raw materials varies between 8 and 9 t/c. Ores and minerals vary between 11 and 15 t/c. The DMI puts Sweden above estimates made for Germany, the United States, and Japan and in the same range as the Netherlands. The differences in these values can mainly be explained by the relative importance of exports as compared to the size of the economy and by the variation in system boundaries for the data on natural resources. The system boundaries and data sources for natural resources need to be further defined to make the measures fully comparable. Around 5 t/c is exported, whereas the rest, around 20 t/c, is national consumption. The aggregate direct material consumption (DMC), which is the DMI minus exports, communicates the magnitude of resource use. Comparisons of the input with solid waste statistics indicate that quantity of waste (excluding mining waste) in Sweden is equal to about 10% relative of the total resource use. Material collected for recycling by the waste management system is equal to about 5% of the amount of virgin resources brought into society each year.     

The Copper Balance of Cities

Material management faces a dual challenge: on the one hand satisfying large and increasing demands for goods and on the other hand accommodating wastes and emissions in sinks. Hence, the characterization of material flows and stocks is relevant for both improving resource efficiency and environmental protection. This article focuses on the urban scale, a dimension rarely investigated in past metal flow studies. We compare the copper (Cu) metabolism of two cities in different economic states, namely, Vienna (Europe) and Taipei (Asia). Substance flow analysis is used to calculate urban Cu balances in a comprehensive and transparent form. The main difference between Cu in the two cities appears to be the stock: Vienna seems close to saturation with 180 kilograms per capita (kg/cap) and a growth rate of 2% per year. In contrast, the Taipei stock of 30 kg/cap grows rapidly by 26% per year. Even though most Cu is recycled in both cities, bottom ash from municipal solid waste incineration represents an unused Cu potential accounting for 1% to 5% of annual demand. Nonpoint emissions are predominant; up to 50% of the loadings into the sewer system are from nonpoint sources. The results of this research are instrumental for the design of the Cu metabolism in each city. The outcomes serve as a base for identification and recovery of recyclables as well as for directing nonrecyclables to appropriate sinks, avoiding sensitive environmental pathways. The methodology applied is well suited for city benchmarking if sufficient data are available.     

典型移民城市食物氮足迹估算分析——以深圳市为例

城市食物源氮消费产生的环境排放是全国氮污染的重要源头,城市食物氮足迹评估可反映维持城市人口基本食物需求的活性氮排放以及对周边环境的潜在影响。以典型移民城市深圳市为例,基于改进N-Calculator模型的基础上,估算了2010-2015年间因城市人口流动导致的城市食物氮足迹变化,并分析其时空异质性及其与城市化间的关系。结果表明：深圳市不同类型城市居民食物氮足迹不一致,其中常住户籍居民人均食物氮足迹从14.63 kg N a^-1增加至15.17 kg N a^-1,高于非户籍居民食物氮足迹13.09 kg N a^-1,其主要体现在瓜果、肉类、水产品等食物消费上。总体上,深圳城市食物氮足迹呈增长趋势,5年增幅11.50%,增幅最大为常住户籍居民食物氮足迹,但目前深圳非户籍居民的食物消费主导着城市食物氮足迹。深圳城市内部区域食物氮足迹呈高度空间异质性与聚集性,各区域增长量差异明显,街道尺度城市食物氮足迹增长热点主要分布在城市的西部沿海区域,部分热点区域单位增长量数量级比肩区级尺度单位的增长量,城市区域食物氮足迹与人口城市化的关联性不明显,但与经济城市化存在一定的关联性。当前城市移民落户趋势及居民高氮饮食倾向不利于城市氮足迹的削减,减少食物生产上游活性氮流失为深圳市贯彻粤港澳大湾区协同可持续发展的关键。     

中国食品源氮消费环境排放及其城乡差异

食品源氮消费是人居环境养分流动的重要环节,中国食品源氮消费产生的环境排放受城乡二元结构影响在时空变化上呈现显著分异。基于物质流分析方法,从中国城乡食品消费后产物不同处理过程及其对氮代谢的影响出发,模拟氮物质代谢过程,构建了一套氮素环境排放计算模型,借以研究中国近20年来城乡食品源氮消费环境排放趋势变化及其差异。研究结果发现1993—2012年间,我国城乡居民人均食品源氮排变化轨迹迥异。同时,城乡食品源氮消费在其所造成的水体、土壤、大气环境负荷中扮演的角色各不相同:在水体环境负荷中,农村水体氮排占据主导地位,但城乡间差异正逐步缩小;在土壤环境负荷中,城市土壤氮排主导优势明显;2010年以前全国食品源氮消费大气环境负荷主要受农村气体氮排的影响,而2010年以后,城市大气氮排成为影响全国大气氮负荷的主导因素。引入社会经济因素分析后发现,城镇居民人均可支配收入水平对城镇居民人均食品源氮排起显著促进作用;而农村食品价格指数对农村居民人均食品源环境氮排呈显著抑制作用。通过情景预测分析发现:随着我国城镇化进程的加快,未来全国居民人均食品源氮排将以更快速度继续增长。     

城市居民食物磷素消费变化及其环境负荷——以厦门市为例

城市磷代谢不但关系到居民食品安全,还影响到城市生态系统的环境质量.快速的城市化进程及由此带来的居民生活水平的提高,会改变食物消费的数量、质量和结构,从而对城市磷代谢产生重要影响.分析了1988-2010年厦门市经食物消费进入城市系统的磷素变化动态,在此基础上对人均食物磷消费量与相关社会经济因子进行了Spearman相关分析,并计算了居民食物磷素消费的环境负荷.研究结果表明:(1)随着厦门城市化进程的推进,食物磷素消费总量波动上升;人均食物磷素消费量呈M型变化,两个峰值分别出现在1998年和2003年;高磷含量食物如奶制品、水产品,在人均食物磷素消费量中所占比例剧增,分别由0.3％和6.8％上升至14.9％和15.5％.(2)人均粮食磷素消费量与恩格尔系数、平均家庭人口数呈高度正相关,与人均可支配收入、食物价格指数以及具有大学学历以上人口比重呈高度负相关;而植物油、瓜果、畜禽肉、蛋类、奶类和水产品磷素消费量则与粮食所呈现的相关性相反.(3)随着食物磷素消费总量的增加,磷素的环境负荷总量也呈剧增趋势,尤其进入土壤的磷素量剧烈上升,所占比例由59.7％增至85.1％,这可能与禁磷措施的实行、污水处理率的提高、处理工艺的改进等有关.     

The Progressive Increase of Food Waste in America and Its Environmental Impact

Food waste contributes to excess consumption of freshwater and fossil fuels which, along with methane and CO₂ emissions from decomposing food, impacts global climate change. Here, we calculate the energy content of nationwide food waste from the difference between the US food supply and the food consumed by the population. The latter was estimated using a validated mathematical model of metabolism relating body weight to the amount of food eaten. We found that US per capita food waste has progressively increased by ∼50% since 1974 reaching more than 1400 kcal per person per day or 150 trillion kcal per year. Food waste now accounts for more than one quarter of the total freshwater consumption and ∼300 million barrels of oil per year.     

北京市居民食物消费碳足迹

碳足迹作为一种评价碳排放影响的全新测度方法,已被用来衡量人类活动对大气环境和气候变化的影响。食物是人类的首要消费品,其消费的碳足迹反应维持一个区域人口的基本食物需求的碳排放以及对气候变化的影响。在碳足迹理论和模型的基础上,根据北京市食物的供应和消费现状情况,利用生命周期法(Life cycle analysis LCA),计算和分析了北京市居民食物消费的碳足迹。得到北京市居民食消费碳足迹为476.8×104t,约占北京市总碳足迹的6%,人均碳足迹为310.0kgCO2/人,占北京市家庭消费碳排放的23.3%,只占北京市能源消费人均碳排放量的5.96%,反映了居民食物消费对全球气候变化造成的影响有限。食物消费碳足迹最大的为粮食,其次为瓜果蔬菜豆类,总共占到65%以上,而在食物生命周期过程中,食物的再加工炊事过程碳排放最大,超过50%,合理减少食物加工炊事过程中碳排放将是减少食物消费碳排放的重要途径之一。其次为化肥农药施用,占到23.23%,减少食物生产过程中化肥农药使用,提高化肥农药的使用效率,或者进行生态农业尽量不使用化肥农药,北京市每年可减少135.1×104t CO2排放,人均87.84kgCO2/人,是有效的减排途径之一。     

A Comparison of Two Methods to Conduct Material Flow Analysis on Waste Tires in a Small Island Developing State

The disposal of scrap tires is one of the biggest solid waste issues facing some small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean. Dominica is a small Caribbean island nation that seeks to maintain its well‐founded image as the “Nature Island of the Caribbean.” The economy has seen a steadily increasing import of both tires and cars, with no mechanism for exportation of spent tires. This study used data gathered from both government and international sources to estimate the quantity of tires currently on the island and projected each year up to 2020 to determine potential reuse options. We performed a material flow analysis (MFA) using tire import, vehicle registration records, and projected per capita income to determine the expected accumulation of waste tires. Vehicle registration is expected to rise with the island's wealth, which will affect the annual flow of tires. Two methods were used to predict vehicle growth over time. Our analysis showed an average waste tire output from the economy of 47,000 to 50,000 passenger tire equivalents (PTEs) per year, or approximately 470 to 500 short tons per year of mass. Such an output does not justify large expenditures of tire shredding and processing equipment, but whole tire applications may be feasible as potential disposition options. The methods can be easily replicated to give low‐range and high‐range estimates of waste tires disposed in the environment.     

不同规模餐馆食物浪费及其氮足迹——以北京市为例

餐饮食物浪费的普遍性和严重性已得到了社会各界的关注。通过实证研究的方法对餐饮消费中食物浪费问题进行了研究,并从食物全供应链的视角,对比分析了不同规模餐馆食物浪费的氮足迹及其环境影响。研究表明:北京市餐饮食物浪费人均浪费量为74.39g/人次,其含氮量为1.24g/人次,约占总浪费量的2%。北京市餐饮食物浪费所引起总的氮排放量为16.37 g/人次,其中有1.24g/人次的氮排放来自于食物的直接浪费,其余15.13g/人次氮排放来自于食物生产过程。北京市餐饮食物浪费的氮足迹为0.22g N/g,即每浪费1g的食物,就会有0.22 g的氮排放到环境中。对比不同规模餐馆的食物浪费情况可知,大型餐馆的人均浪费量最高,有99.38g/人次,其氮排放量也相应最大,为22.53g/人次;中型餐馆和小型餐馆的食物浪费人均量及N排放量依次减少,而快餐的最低,仅为北京市整体平均水平的1/3。     

The Direct Material Inputs into Singapore's Development

Because human population and socioeconomic activity are both increasingly concentrated in cities, an improved understanding of the environmental consequences of urbanization is needed. A 41-year annual time series of direct material flows was compiled for Singapore, representing a case of fast, export-driven industrialization. Results show that the spectacular economic growth of Singapore by a factor of 20 was associated with a similar expansion of domestic material consumption (DMC). DMC remained closely coupled to economic activity, increasing from below 4 tonnes per capita annually in 1962 to more than 50 tonnes annually in 2000. Despite economic structural changes and a growing service sector, no significant improvements in overall material productivity have been observed.     

Food consumption and growth of a female dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus)

Food consumption, body measurements, weight changes, and body temperatures of a female dusky dolphin are presented for the 13 years that she was at Sea World, Durban. Her annual food consumption increased from 1,870 kg at the age of 3 years to 2,170 kg when she was 5 years old. During her sixth year, her annual food intake increased to approximately 2,900 kg. This increase coincided with the installation of a cooling system that was used in the summer in the years thereafter. After her sixth year, her food consumption fluctuated between 2,400 and 2,800 kg per year. The dolphin's body weight increased gradually from approximately 52 kg at the age of 2 years to approximately 66 kg at the age of 6 years. Thereafter, her weight fluctuated between 61 and 74 kg. As body weight increased, daily food consumption as a percentage of body weight decreased. In general, her food intake was above average during autumn and winter, and below average during spring and summer. The average pool water temperature fluctuated seasonally. Gastrointestinal initial passage time was measured using carmine red dye. The median passage time was 150 minutes. The average rectal temperature was 36.9°C. Zoo Biol 19:131–142, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Regional Patterns in Global Resource Extraction

This article presents an account of global resource extraction for the year 1999 by material groups, world regions, and development status. The account is based on materials flow analysis methodology and provides benchmark information for political strategies toward sustainable resource management. It shows that currently around 50 thousand megatons of resources are extracted yearly on a global scale, which results in a yearly global average resource use of around 8 tonnes per capita. Assuming further growth in world regions not yet close to the levels of resource use in the industrial cores—such as India or China—numbers could easily double once these parts of the world come to fully incorporate the industrial mode of production and consumption. This article contributes to information on resource use indicators, complementing and enriching information from economic accounting in order to facilitate political measures toward a sustainable use of resources.     

The impacts of Japanese food losses and food waste on global natural resources and greenhouse gas emissions

Japan depends heavily on imports for its food supply. Since 2000, the food self‐sufficiency ratio has remained approximately 40% on a caloric basis. Japanese food wastage (i.e., food losses and food waste) is estimated to have been 6.42 million tonnes (50 kg per capita of wastage) in 2012. These values indicate that food wastage leads to wasted natural resources and excessive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions both in Japan and in countries that export to Japan. This study estimates Japanese food wastage by food item to evaluate impacts on land and water resources and global GHG emissions during the processing, distribution, and consumption phases of the food supply chain while also considering the feed crops needed for livestock production. Despite uncertainties due to data limitations, in 2012, 1.23 million hectares of harvested land were used to produce food that was eventually wasted, and 413 million m³ of water resources were wasted due to Japanese food wastage in agricultural production. Furthermore, unnecessary GHG emissions were 3.51 million tonnes of CO₂ eq. in agricultural production and 0.49 million tonnes of CO₂ eq. in international transportation. The outcomes of the present study can be used to develop countermeasures to food wastage in industrializing Asian countries where food imports are projected to increase and food wastage issues in the consumption stage are expected to become as serious as they currently are in Japan.     

城镇化对我国食物消费系统氮素流动及循环利用的影响

城镇化的快速发展,在改变养分氮素流动模式的同时带来了巨大的生态环境压力和严重的污染问题.以1982年、1992年和2002年我国城镇与农村居民食物消费系统氮素流动为对象,采用物质流分析方法,探讨了城镇化对氮素流动特征及循环利用率的影响.结果表明:2002年我国城镇居民人均消费氮量为4.770kg,高于农村居民(4.314kg)10%.1982年到2002年,随着城镇化率的提高,城镇居民消费的食物氮提高了145.3%,农村减少了8.1%;城镇排入水体环境的氮增加了18.4倍,而氮素循环利用率只有13.0%,降低了40个百分点.情景分析结果表明,如果在人口增加的同时,食物结构达到国家营养纲要的标准,到2010年我国植物性氮消费量比2002年将增多142.3万t,增加了37.6%,动物性氮消费量将增多53.8万t,增加了 27.1%,城镇产生的粪尿和垃圾中氮将增加126万t.因此,伴随城镇化快速发展,在带来食物氮素需求和环境排放氮素大幅度增加的同时,也会对动植物生产带来巨大压力.     

北京城市化进程中家庭食物碳消费动态

不可持续的家庭消费是造成全球环境问题的主要原因,食物碳消费研究是促进可持续家庭消费的重要内容。基于政府宏观统计数据,分析北京城市化进程中城市家庭食物碳消费的变化趋势和影响因素。结果表明,与1979年相比,1999年北京城市家庭人均及户均食物消费量分别减少了15.2%和38.6%,而食物碳消费总量增加了28.5%,食物碳消费结构由“以粮食为主”转变成“以粮食和肉类为主”。城市化进程中,以1993年为界,家庭食物人均及户均碳消费量均由明显减少趋势转变为明显增长趋势,变化的主要原因由“食物消费结构变化引起的人均谷物类碳消费量的减少”转变为“人均食物消费量增加引起的人均肉类碳消费量的增加”。北京城市家庭已基本完成食物消费结构的转变,人均食物消费量仍继续增加。GDP指数是影响人均食物碳消费量的主要经济因素,经济的继续增长可能带来人均食物碳消费量的增加,北京城市家庭食物碳消费尚未达到稳定状态。     

The weight of islands: Leveraging Grenada's material stocks to adapt to climate change

The building stock consumes large amounts of resources for maintenance and expansion which is only exacerbated by disaster events where large‐scale reconstruction must occur quickly. Recent research has shown the potential for application of material stock (MS) accounts for informing disaster risk planning. In this research, we present a methodological approach to analyze the vulnerability of the material stock in buildings to extreme weather events and sea‐level rise (SLR) due to climate change. The main island of Grenada, a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) in the Caribbean region, was used as a case study. A bottom‐up approach based on a geographic information system (GIS) is used to calculate the total MS of aggregate, timber, concrete, and steel in buildings. The total MS in buildings in 2014 was calculated to be 11.9 million tonnes (Mt), which is equivalent to 112 tonnes per capita. Material gross addition to stock (GAS) between 1993 to 2009 was 6.8 Mt and the average value over the time period was 4.0 tonnes per capita per year. In the year following Hurricane Ivan (2004), the per capita GAS for timber increased by 172%, while for other metals, GAS spiked by 103% (compared to average growth rates of 11% and 8%, respectively, between 1993 and 2009). We also ran a future “Ivan‐II” scenario and estimated a hypothetical loss of between 135 and 216 kilotonnes (kt) of timber from the building stock. The potential impact of SLR is also assessed, with an estimated 1.6 Mt of building material stock exposed under a 2‐m scenario. We argue that spatial material stock accounts have an important application in planning for resilience and provide indication of the link between natural disaster recovery and resource use patterns.