Structural basis for UBA-mediated dimerization of c-Cbl ubiquitin ligase

Ligand-induced down-regulation by the ubiquitin-protein ligases, c-Cbl and Cbl-b, controls signaling downstream from many receptor-tyrosine kinases (RTK). Cbl proteins bind to phosphotyrosine residues on activated RTKs to affect ligand-dependent ubiquitylation of these receptors targeting them for degradation in the lysosome. Both c-Cbl and Cbl-b contain a ubiquitin-associated (UBA) domain, which is important for Cbl dimerization and tyrosine phosphorylation; however, the mechanism of UBA-mediated dimerization and its requirement for Cbl biological activity is unclear. Here, we report the crystal structure of the UBA domain of c-Cbl refined to 2.1-A resolution. The structure reveals the protein is a symmetric dimer tightly packed along a large hydrophobic surface formed by helices 2 and 3. NMR chemical shift mapping reveals heterodimerization can occur with the related Cbl-b UBA domain via the same surface employed for homodimerization. Disruption of c-Cbl dimerization by site-directed mutagenesis impairs c-Cbl phosphorylation following activation of the Met/hepatocyte growth factor RTK and c-Cbl-dependent ubiquitination of Met. This provides direct evidence for a role of Cbl dimerization in terminating signaling following activation of RTKs.     

A conserved DpYR motif in the juxtamembrane domain of the Met receptor family forms an atypical c-Cbl/Cbl-b tyrosine kinase binding domain binding site required for suppression of oncogenic activation

The activation and phosphorylation of Met, the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) for hepatocyte growth factor, initiates the recruitment of multiple signaling proteins, one of which is c-Cbl, a ubiquitin-protein ligase. c-Cbl promotes ubiquitination and enhances the down-modulation of the Met receptor and other RTKs, targeting them for lysosomal sorting and subsequent degradation. The ubiquitination of Met by c-Cbl requires the direct interaction of the c-Cbl tyrosine kinase binding (TKB) domain with tyrosine 1003 in the Met juxtamembrane domain. Although a consensus for c-Cbl TKB domain binding has been established ((D/N)XpYXX(D/E0phi), this motif is not present in Met, suggesting that other c-Cbl TKB domain binding motifs may exist. By alanine-scanning mutagenesis, we have identified a DpYR motif including Tyr(1003) as being important for the direct recruitment of the c-Cbl TKB domain and for ubiquitination of the Met receptor. The substitution of Tyr(1003) with phenylalanine or substitution of either aspartate or arginine residues with alanine impairs c-Cbl-recruitment and ubiquitination of Met and results in the oncogenic activation of the Met receptor. We demonstrate that the TKB domain of Cbl-b, but not Cbl-3, binds to the Met receptor and requires an intact DpYR motif. Modeling studies suggest the presence of a salt bridge between the aspartate and arginine residues that would position pTyr(1003) for binding to the c-Cbl TKB domain. The DpYR motif is conserved in other members of the Met RTK family but is not present in previously identified c-Cbl-binding proteins, identifying DpYR as a new binding motif for c-Cbl and Cbl-b.     

Leucine zipper-mediated homodimerization of the adaptor protein c-Cbl. A role in c-Cbl's tyrosine phosphorylation and its association with epidermal growth factor receptor.

The 120-kDa proto-oncogenic protein c-Cbl is a multidomain adaptor protein that is phosphorylated in response to the stimulation of a broad range of cell surface receptors and participates in the assembly of signaling complexes that are formed as a result of the activation of various signal transduction pathways. Several structural features of c-Cbl, including the phosphotyrosine-binding domain, proline-rich domain, and motifs containing phosphotyrosine and phosphoserine residues, mediate the association of c-Cbl with other components of these complexes. In addition to those domains that have been demonstrated to play a role in the binding of c-Cbl to other signaling molecules, c-Cbl also contains a RING finger motif and a putative leucine zipper. In this study, we demonstrate that the previously identified putative leucine zipper mediates the formation of Cbl homodimers. Using the yeast two-hybrid system, we show that deletion of the leucine zipper domain is sufficient to abolish Cbl homodimerization, while Cbl mutants carrying extensive N-terminal truncations retain the ability to dimerize with the full-length Cbl. The requirement of the leucine zipper for the homodimerization of Cbl was confirmed by in vitro binding assays, using deletion variants of the C-terminal half of Cbl with and without the leucine zipper domain, and in cells using Myc and green fluorescent protein (GFP) N-terminal-tagged Cbl variants. In cells, the deletion of the leucine zipper caused a decrease in both the tyrosine phosphorylation of Cbl and its association with the epidermal growth factor receptor following stimulation with epidermal growth factor, thus demonstrating a role for the leucine zipper in c-Cbl's signaling functions. Thus, the leucine zipper domain enables c-Cbl to homodimerize, and homodimerization influences Cbl's signaling function, modulating the activity of Cbl itself and/or affecting Cbl's associations with other signaling proteins in the cell.     

Met kinase-dependent loss of the E3 ligase Cbl in gastric cancer

Strict regulation of signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) is essential for normal biological processes, and disruption of this regulation can lead to tumor initiation and progression. Signal duration by the Met RTK is mediated in part by the E3 ligase Cbl. Cbl is recruited to Met upon kinase activation and promotes ubiquitination, trafficking, and degradation of the receptor. The Met RTK has been demonstrated to play a role in various types of cancer. Here, we show that Met-dependent loss of Cbl protein in MET-amplified gastric cancer cell lines represents another mechanism contributing to signal dysregulation. Loss of Cbl protein is dependent on Met kinase activity and is partially rescued with a proteasome inhibitor, lactacystin. Moreover, Cbl loss not only uncouples Met from Cbl-mediated negative regulation but also releases other Cbl targets, such as the EGF receptor, from Cbl-mediated signal attenuation. Thus, Met-dependent Cbl loss may also promote cross-talk through indirect enhancement of EGF receptor signaling.     

肝细胞生长因子及受体传递的调节与内吞作用

肝细胞生长因子(HGF)是一种具有多重功能的细胞调控因子。HGF与其受体Met酪氨酸激酶(c-Met)的结合可激发多种生物学反应,从而调节细胞的增殖、分化、形态发生和侵袭运动等。有多种因素参与了HGF/c-Met信号传导的调控,从而防止信号的过度放大,其中Cbl1、Rab、泛素化激酶和HGF/c-Met的内吞等发挥了重要的作用。因此,对HGF/c-Met内吞过程的研究,了解内吞对于HGF/c-Met的信号传导及其调控的影响,探讨HGF/c-Met信号传导通路的调控机理和相互作用模式,可进一步阐明HGF/c-Met信号传导的调控机制,从而验证肝细胞中内吞作用直接调节HGF/c-Met信号通路的作用机制。     

Met/Hepatocyte growth factor receptor ubiquitination suppresses transformation and is required for Hrs phosphorylation

The Met receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) regulates epithelial remodeling, dispersal, and invasion and is deregulated in many human cancers. It is now accepted that impaired down-regulation, as well as sustained activation, of RTKs could contribute to their deregulation. Down-regulation of the Met receptor involves ligand-induced internalization, ubiquitination by Cbl ubiquitin ligases, and lysosomal degradation. Here we report that a ubiquitination-deficient Met receptor mutant (Y1003F) is tumorigenic in vivo. The Met Y1003F mutant is internalized, and undergoes endosomal trafficking with kinetics similar to the wild-type Met receptor, yet is inefficiently targeted for degradation. This results in sustained activation of Met Y1003F and downstream signals involving the Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, cell transformation, and tumorigenesis. Although Met Y1003F undergoes endosomal trafficking and localizes with the cargo-sorting protein Hrs, it is unable to induce phosphorylation of Hrs. Fusion of monoubiquitin to Met Y1003F is sufficient to decrease Met receptor stability and prevent sustained MEK1/2 activation. In addition, this rescues Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation and decreases transformation in a focus-forming assay. These results demonstrate that Cbl-dependent ubiquitination is dispensable for Met internalization but is critical to target the Met receptor to components of the lysosomal sorting machinery and to suppress its inherent transforming activity.     

Ligand-induced downregulation of TrkA is partly regulated through ubiquitination by Cbl

Nerve growth factor (NGF) binding to its receptor TrkA, which belongs to the family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), is known to induce its internalization, endosomal trafficking and subsequent lysosomal degradation. The Cbl family of ubiquitin ligases plays a major role in mediating ubiquitination and degradation of RTKs. However, it is not known whether Cbl participates in mediating ubiquitination of TrkA. Here we report that c-Cbl mediates ligand-induced ubiquitination and degradation of TrkA. TrkA ubiquitination and degradation required direct interactions between c-Cbl and phosphorylated TrkA. c-Cbl and ubiquitinated TrkA are found in a complex after NGF stimulation and are degraded in lysosomes. Taken together, our data demonstrate that c-Cbl can induce downregulation of NGF-TrkA complexes through ubiquitination and degradation of TrkA.     

Cbl-mediated negative regulation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor-dependent cell proliferation. A critical role for Cbl tyrosine kinase-binding domain.

The Cbl proto-oncogene product has emerged as a novel negative regulator of receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinases. Our previous observations that Cbl overexpression in NIH3T3 cells enhanced the ubiquitination and degradation of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor-alpha (PDGFRalpha) and that the expression of oncogenic Cbl mutants up-regulated the PDGFRalpha signaling machinery strongly suggested that Cbl negatively regulates PDGFRalpha signaling. Here, we show that, similar to PDGFRalpha, selective stimulation of PDGFRbeta induces Cbl phosphorylation, and its physical association with the receptor. Overexpression of wild type Cbl in NIH3T3 cells led to an enhancement of the ligand-dependent ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of the PDGFRbeta, as observed with PDGFRalpha. We show that Cbl-dependent negative regulation of PDGFRalpha and beta results in a reduction of PDGF-induced cell proliferation and protection against apoptosis. A point mutation (G306E) that inactivates the tyrosine kinase binding domain in the N-terminal transforming region of Cbl compromised the PDGF-inducible tyrosine phosphorylation of Cbl although this mutant could still associate with the PDGFR. More importantly, the G306E mutation abrogated the ability of Cbl to enhance the ligand-induced ubiquitination and degradation of the PDGFR and to inhibit the PDGF-dependent cell proliferation and protection from apoptosis. These results demonstrate that Cbl can negatively regulate PDGFR-dependent biological responses and that this function requires the conserved tyrosine kinase binding domain of Cbl.     

Oncogenic Met receptor induces cell-cycle progression in Xenopus oocytes independent of direct Grb2 and Shc binding or Mos synthesis, but requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Raf signaling

Biological responses of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) are mediated by the Met receptor tyrosine kinase. Although HGF is a potent mitogen for a variety of cells, the signals required for cell-cycle progression by the Met/HGF receptor are poorly defined. In this study, we have used the Xenopus oocyte system to define the role of various Met proximal-binding partners and downstream signaling pathways in cell-cycle regulation. We show that cell-cycle progression and activation of MAPK and JNK mediated by the oncogenic Met receptor, Tpr-Met, are dependent on its kinase activity and the presence of the twin phosphotyrosine (Y482 & Y489) residues in its C-terminus, but that the recruitment of Grb2 and Shc adaptor proteins is dispensable, implicating other signaling molecules. However, using Met receptor oncoproteins engineered to recruit specific signaling proteins, we demonstrate that recruitment of Grb2 or Shc adaptor proteins is sufficient to induce cell-cycle progression and activation of MAPK and JNK, while the binding of phospholipase-Cgamma or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase alone fails to elicit these responses. Using various means to block phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, phospholipase-Cgamma, MEK, JNK, Mos, and Raf1 activity, we show that unlike the fibroblast growth factor receptor, MEK-dependent and independent signaling contribute to Met receptor-mediated cell-cycle progression, but phospholipase-Cgamma or JNK activity and Mos synthesis are not critical. Notably, we demonstrate that Raf1 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling are required for cell-cycle progression initiated by the Met receptor, a protein frequently deregulated in human tumors.     

An activity-based probe for high-throughput measurements of triacylglycerol lipases

The casitas B-lineage lymphoma (Cbl) proteins play an important role in regulating signal transduction pathways by functioning as E3 ubiquitin ligases. The Cbl proteins contain a conserved tyrosine kinase binding (TKB) domain that binds more than a dozen proteins, including protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. The cell surface expression levels of the PTKs are regulated by Cbl-mediated ubiquitination, internalization, and degradation. Dysfunction in this signaling cascade has resulted in prolonged activation of the PTKs and, therefore, has been implicated in inflammatory diseases and various cancers. Due to this negative regulatory function, Cbl has been largely ignored as a therapeutic target. However, recent studies, such as the identification of (i) gain of function c-Cbl mutations in subsets of myeloid cancer and (ii) c-Cbl as a prostate basal cell marker that correlates with poor clinical outcome, suggest otherwise. Here we report the development of a competitive high-throughput fluorescence polarization assay in a 384-well format to identify inhibitors of Cbl(TKB). The high-throughput screen readiness of the assay was demonstrated by screening the Prestwick Chemical Library.     

Differential regulation of the B cell receptor-mediated signaling by the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl

The E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl has been implicated in intracellular signaling pathways induced by the engagement of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) as a negative regulator. Here we showed that Cbl deficiency results in a reduction of B cell proliferation. Cbl-/- B cells show impaired tyrosine phosphorylation, reduced Erk activation, and attenuated calcium mobilization in response to BCR engagement. The phosphorylation of Syk and Btk is also down-modulated. Interestingly, Cbl-/- B cells display enhanced BCR-induced phosphorylation of CD19 and its association with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Importantly, Lyn kinase activity is up-regulated in Cbl-/- B cells, which correlates inversely with the Cbl-mediated ubiquitination of Lyn. Because Lyn has both negative and positive roles in B cells, our results suggested that Cbl differentially modulates the BCR-mediated signaling pathways through targeting Lyn ubiquitination, which affects B cell development and activation.     

Abl functions as a negative regulator of Met-induced cell motility via phosphorylation of the adapter protein CrkII

HGF, the ligand for the Met receptor tyrosine kinase, is a potent modulator of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and dispersal of epithelial cells, which are processes that play a crucial role in cell motility during normal development and malignant transformation. We and others have shown earlier that the adapter protein CrkII and its associated proteins positively regulate cell migratory events in response to both haptotactic and chemotactic stimuli, including HGF. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that phosphorylation of CrkII serves as a negative feedback loop to regulate motile responses upon Met stimulation. Thus, we found that the treatment of cells with HGF induces tyrosine phosphorylation of CrkII at Y221, which in turn results in inhibition of CrkII signaling via formation of an intramolecular pY221-SH2-domain interaction. Accordingly, expression of a mutant form of CrkII, CrkII-Y221F, which is resistant to phosphorylation at this negative regulatory site, enhanced Met-induced cell motility. Furthermore, we demonstrate here that the Met-induced CrkII phosphorylation depends on the Abl tyrosine kinase activity. As a corollary, we found that Abl inhibitors, such as the STI571 compound, significantly enhanced Met-induced cell motility, but failed to do so in cells that expressed the CrkII-Y221F mutant protein. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the Abl tyrosine kinase functions as a negative regulator of Met-induced cell migration, and that it does so by inducing CrkII phosphorylation at the site Y221.     

Spred-2 steady-state levels are regulated by phosphorylation and Cbl-mediated ubiquitination

Spred proteins modulate growth factor receptor signaling by inhibiting the Ras-MAPK cascade. Here, we show that Spred-1, Spred-2, and Spred-3 are ubiquitinated in HEK293T cells stimulated with epidermal growth factor (EGF) or pervanadate. Spred-2 tyrosines Y228 and/or Y231 in the Kit binding domain were identified as putative phosphorylation site(s) critical for Spred-2 ubiquitination. Depletion of Cbl and Cbl-b E3 ubiquitin ligases by RNA interference, or overexpression of a Cbl dominant inhibitory mutant (Cbl-N), inhibited Spred-2 ubiquitination, while conversely, wild type Cbl enhanced Spred-2 ubiquitination. Interaction of Spred-2 with Cbl-N was detectable by co-immunoprecipitation and required the Cbl SH2 domain and Spred-2 Y228 and Y231 residues. Studies on endogenous Spred-2 in ME4405 melanoma cells showed that pervanadate induced Spred-2 ubiquitination and a marked reduction in Spred-2 steady-state levels that was partially blocked by the proteasomal inhibitor, MG-132. These results suggest a role for Spred-2 tyrosine phosphorylation and ubiquitination in controlling Spred-2 expression levels.     

Mutation of the c-Cbl TKB domain binding site on the Met receptor tyrosine kinase converts it into a transforming protein.

The c-Cbl protooncogene is a negative regulator for several receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) through its ability to promote their polyubiquitination. Hence, uncoupling c-Cbl from RTKs may lead to their deregulation. In testing this, we show that c-Cbl promotes ubiquitination of the Met RTK. This requires the c-Cbl tyrosine kinase binding (TKB) domain and a juxtamembrane tyrosine residue on Met. This tyrosine provides a direct binding site for the c-Cbl TKB domain, and is absent in the rearranged oncogenic Tpr-Met variant. A Met receptor, where the juxtamembrane tyrosine is replaced by phenylalanine, is not ubiquitinated and has transforming activity in fibroblast and epithelial cells. We propose the uncoupling of c-Cbl from RTKs as a mechanism contributing to their oncogenic activation.     

Degradation of the Met tyrosine kinase receptor by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.

The Met tyrosine kinase receptor is a widely expressed molecule which mediates pleiotropic cellular responses following activation by its ligand, hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF). In this communication we demonstrate that significant Met degradation is induced by HGF/SF and that this degradation can be blocked by lactacystin, an inhibitor of proteasome activity. We also show that Met is rapidly polyubiquitinated in response to ligand and that polyubiquitinated Met molecules, which are normally unstable, are stabilized by lactacystin. Both HGF/SF-induced degradation and polyubiquitination of Met were shown to be dependent on the receptor possessing intact tyrosine kinase activity. Finally, we found that a normally highly labile 55-kDa fragment of the Met receptor is stabilized by lactacystin and demonstrate that it represents a cell-associated remnant that is generated following the ligand-independent proteolytic cleavage of the Met receptor in its extracellular domain. This truncated Met molecule encompasses the kinase domain of the receptor and is itself tyrosine phosphorylated. We conclude that the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway plays a significant role in the degradation of the Met tyrosine kinase receptor as directed by ligand-dependent and -independent signals. We propose that this proteolytic pathway may be important for averting cellular transformation by desensitizing Met signaling following ligand stimulation and by eliminating potentially oncogenic fragments generated via extracellular cleavage of the Met receptor.     

How to make tubes: signaling by the Met receptor tyrosine kinase

Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF), acting through the receptor tyrosine kinase Met, stimulates cells derived from a variety of different organs to form elongated hollow tubules when grown in three-dimensional gels. In vivo data also indicate a role for HGF/SF and Met in tubule formation during liver and kidney regeneration and mammary gland formation. Activation of Met results in the recruitment of a myriad of signal transducers that regulate dissociation of adherens junctions and the stimulation of cellular motility, survival, proliferation and morphogenesis during tubule formation. Among these many signal transducers, the Gab1 adaptor protein and its effector, the SHP2 tyrosine phosphatase, have been found to be crucial for tubulogenesis and for the sustained stimulation of the ERK/MAP kinase pathway. Here, we discuss the contribution of these and other signaling pathways and the role of HGF/SF and Met in the formation of epithelial cell tubules both in vitro in branching-morphogenesis assays and in vivo during organogenesis.     

c-Cbl associates directly with the C-terminal tail of the receptor for the macrophage colony-stimulating factor, c-Fms, and down-modulates this receptor but not the viral oncogene v-Fms

The receptor for the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF-1, also termed M-CSF), the tyrosine kinase c-Fms, was originally determined to be the oncogene product of the McDonough strain of feline sarcoma virus, v-Fms. The structural difference between c-Fms and v-Fms amounts to only five point mutations in the extracellular domain, two mutations in the cytoplasmic domain, and the replacement of 50 amino acids by 14 unrelated amino acids at the C-terminal tail. Here, we have identified c-Cbl as the direct binding partner for c-Fms. c-Cbl binds to phosphotyrosine residue 977 at the C-terminal end of feline c-Fms, which is absent in v-Fms. The replacement of the C-terminal end of v-Fms by the corresponding part of c-Fms (vc-Fms) restored the binding potential. As a result, vc-Fms reduced the transforming potency of v-Fms. The overexpression of Cbl did not influence the v-Fms-transformed phenotype, although c-Cbl forms a complex with v-Fms indirectly. In contrast, the expression of Cbl drastically reduced the vc-Fms-transformed phenotype and the activation of Erk and enhanced Fms ubiquitination via phosphotyrosine residue 977. Furthermore, the replacement of tyrosine 977 into phenylalanine in feline c-Fms and vc-Fms reduced the Cbl-dependent ubiquitination. These data suggest that an indirect association of c-Cbl via multimeric complex induced a different signaling pathway from the pathway induced by c-Cbl direct interaction.     

Grb2 mediates negative regulation of stem cell factor receptor/c-Kit signaling by recruitment of Cbl

Aberrant activation of c-Kit is involved in a number of human diseases including cancers and leukemias. Certain receptor tyrosine kinases, such as epidermal growth factor receptor, have been shown to indirectly recruit Cbl through the adapter protein Grb2, leading to receptor ubiquitination and degradation. In order to study the role of Grb2 in c-Kit degradation, a series of mutations of the Grb2 binding sites in c-Kit were generated (Y703F, Y936F, and Y703F/Y936F). Since other signal transduction molecules are also known to bind Y703 and Y936, the more selective asparagine-to-alanine (N-to-A) mutants N705A, N938A, and N705A/N938A were generated. We could clearly demonstrate that binding of Grb2 was dependent on intact phosphorylation sites Y703 and Y936. Furthermore, we could demonstrate the presence of Cbl in a complex with Grb2 and c-Kit. Thus, Grb2 is able to indirectly recruit Cbl to c-Kit. In the N-to-A mutants, Cbl phosphorylation was strongly reduced, which correlated with reduced ubiquitination of c-Kit as well as decreased internalization and degradation of the receptor. Taken together, we have demonstrated that, in addition to its role in positive signaling via the Ras/Erk pathway, Grb2 mediates c-Kit degradation through recruitment of Cbl to c-Kit, leading to ubiquitination of c-Kit followed by internalization and degradation.     

The roles of Cbl-b and c-Cbl in insulin-stimulated glucose transport

Previous studies suggest that the stimulation of glucose transport by insulin involves the tyrosine phosphorylation of c-Cbl and the translocation of the c-Cbl/CAP complex to lipid raft subdomains of the plasma membrane. We now demonstrate that Cbl-b also undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation and membrane translocation in response to insulin in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Ectopic expression of APS facilitated insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of tyrosines 665 and 709 in Cbl-b. The phosphorylation of APS produced by insulin drove the translocation of both c-Cbl and Cbl-b to the plasma membrane. Like c-Cbl, Cbl-b associates constitutively with CAP and interacts with Crk upon insulin stimulation. Cbl proteins formed homo- and heterodimers in vivo, which required the participation of a conserved leucine zipper domain. A Cbl mutant incapable of dimerization failed to interact with APS and to undergo tyrosine phosphorylation in response to insulin, indicating an essential role of Cbl dimerization in these processes. Thus, both c-Cbl and Cbl-b can initiate a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B-independent signaling pathway critical to insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation.