Strength and conditioning practices of Major League Baseball strength and conditioning coaches

This study describes the results of a survey of the practices of Major League Baseball strength and conditioning (MLB S&C) coaches. The response rate was 70.0% (21 of 30). This survey examines (a) background information, (b) physical testing, (c) flexibility development, (d) speed development, (e) plyometrics, (f) strength/power development, (g) unique aspects, and (h) comments. Results indicate, in part, that coaches assess an average of 3.6 parameters of fitness, with body composition testing being the most commonly assessed parameter. All coaches use a variety of flexibility development strategies. All coaches use speed development strategies, with form running drills being the most common. Twenty of 21 (95.2%) coaches employ plyometric exercises with their athletes. Eighteen of 21 (85.7%) of MLB S&C coaches follow a periodization model (PM). Five of 21 coaches (23.8%) indicated that their athletes use Olympic-style lifts. The squat and its variations and the lunge and its variations were most frequently identified as the first and second most important exercises used to train the athletes. This survey provides detailed information about strength and conditioning practices at the most competitive level of baseball and serves as a review, as well as a source of applied information and new ideas.     

Strength and conditioning practices of National Basketball Association strength and conditioning coaches

This study describes the results of a survey of the practices of National Basketball Association strength and conditioning (NBA S&C) coaches. The response rate was 68.9% (20 of 29). This survey examines (a) background information, (b) physical testing, (c) flexibility development, (d) speed development, (e) plyometrics, (f) strength/power development, (g) unique aspects, and (h) comments from coaches providing additional information. Results indicate, in part, that coaches assess an average of 7.3 parameters of fitness, with body composition testing being the most common. All coaches used a variety of flexibility development strategies. Results reveal that 17 of 20 (85.0%) of NBA S&C coaches follow a periodization model. Nineteen of 20 coaches (95.0%) indicated that their athletes used Olympic-style lifts. All coaches employed plyometric exercises with their athletes. The squat and its variations, as well as the Olympic-style lifts and their variations, were the most frequently used exercises. The survey serves as a review and a source of applied information and new ideas.     

Strength and conditioning practices in rowing

There is limited published research on the practices of strength and conditioning (S &C) coaches in Great Britain. Information about training program design would be useful in developing models of good practice and ecologically valid intervention studies. The aim of this research was to quantify the training practices of coaches responsible for the S&C of rowing athletes. A questionnaire was developed that consisted of 6 sections: (a) personal details, (b) physical testing, (c) strength and power development, (d) flexibility development, (e) unique aspects of the program, and (f) any further relevant comments regarding the athletes prescribed training program. Twenty-two rowing and 10 S&C coaches with an average of 10.5 ± 7.2 years' experience agreed to complete the questionnaire. Approximately, 34% coached rowers of Olympic standard, 34% coached national standard, 3% coached regional standard, 19% coached club standard, and 10% coached university standard rowers. All coaches agreed that strength training enhanced rowing performance and the majority (74%) indicated that athletes' strength trained 2-3 times a week. Almost all coaches (94%) reported their rowers performed strength training, with 81% using Olympic lifting, and 91% employing a periodized training model. The clean (63%) and squat (27%) were rated the most important prescribed exercises. Approximately 50% of coaches used plyometrics such as depth jumps, box drills, and standing jumps. Ninety-four percent indicated they conducted physical testing on their rowers, typically assessing cardiovascular endurance (80%), muscular power (70%), muscular strength (70%), and anaerobic capacity (57%). This research represents the only published survey to date on the S&C practices in rowing within Great Britain.     

An examination of current practices and gender differences in strength and conditioning in a sample of varsity high school athletic programs

Currently, little is known about strength and conditioning programs at the high school level. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to explore current practices in strength and conditioning for varsity high school athletes in selected sports. The following were specifically examined: who administers programs for these athletes, what kinds of training activities are done, and whether the responsible party or emphasis changes depending on the gender of the athletes. Coaches of varsity soccer, basketball, softball, and baseball in 3 large Idaho school districts were asked to complete an online survey. Sixty-seven percent (32/48) of the questionnaires were completed and used for the study. The majority of coaches (84%) provided strength and conditioning opportunities for their athletes, although only 37% required participation. Strength training programs were designed and implemented primarily by either physical education teachers or head coaches. Compared with coaches of male athletes, coaches of female athletes were less likely to know the credentials of their strength coaches, and they were less likely to use certified coaches to plan and implement their strength and conditioning programs. Most programs included dynamic warm-ups and cool-downs, plyometrics, agility training, speed training, and conditioning, and most programs were conducted 3 d·wk(-1) (76%) for sessions lasting between 30 and 59 minutes (63%). Compared with their female counterparts, male athletes were more likely to have required training, participate in strength training year round, and train using more sessions per week. This study provides additional information related to the practice of strength and conditioning in a sample of high school athletic teams.     

A survey of the scientific data and training methods utilized by collegiate strength and conditioning coaches

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which scientific research influences college strength and conditioning coaching practices and to determine the training methods utilized. A total of 321 surveys were mailed to Division I strength and conditioning coaches, and the response rate was 42.7% (137 of 321 surveys). Results indicate that all subjects held a baccalaureate degree, the majority in a human performance-related field, and that 75% were Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) certified. The respondents' most widely utilized professional resources were the Strength and Conditioning Journal (94%) and other collegiate coaches and programs (93%). Forty-seven percent of respondents indicated that other collegiate coaches and their programs were the most important sources of knowledge outside of formal education. The majority indicated that they used a periodization protocol (93%) utilizing multiple sets (97%), plyometrics (90%), explosive movements (88%), and Olympic lifts (85%). Respondents tend to rely on sources of information that may not be defined as scientific, as evidenced by the low priority given to peer-reviewed literature. Respondents also tend to employ the methods they utilized as athletes. Reliance on these sources may not take advantage of advances made through scientific research in exercise physiology, biomechanics, and more specifically the area of strength and conditioning.     

The strength and conditioning practices of strongman competitors

This study describes the results of a survey of the strength and conditioning practices of strongman competitors. A 65-item online survey was completed by 167 strongman competitors. The subject group included 83 local, 65 national, and 19 international strongman competitors. The survey comprised 3 main areas of enquiry: (a) exercise selection, (b) training protocols and organization, and (c) strongman event training. The back squat and conventional deadlift were reported as the most commonly used squat and deadlift (65.8 and 88.0%, respectively). Eighty percent of the subjects incorporated some form of periodization in their training. Seventy-four percent of subjects included hypertrophy training, 97% included maximal strength training, and 90% included power training in their training organization. The majority performed speed repetitions with submaximal loads in the squat and deadlift (59.9 and 61.1%, respectively). Fifty-four percent of subjects incorporated lower body plyometrics into their training, and 88% of the strongman competitors reported performing Olympic lifts as part of their strongman training. Seventy-eight percent of subjects reported that the clean was the most performed Olympic lift used in their training. Results revealed that 56 and 38% of the strongman competitors used elastic bands and chains in their training, respectively. The findings demonstrate that strongman competitors incorporate a variety of strength and conditioning practices that are focused on increasing muscular size, and the development of maximal strength and power into their conditioning preparation. The farmers walk, log press, and stones were the most commonly performed strongman exercises used in a general strongman training session by these athletes. These data provide information on the training practices required to compete in the sport of strongman.     

Contemporary practices of strength and conditioning coaches in professional soccer

This study describes the contemporary practices of strength and conditioning coaches in professional soccer. Fifty-two strength and conditioning coaches from professional leagues across 18 countries completed an online survey, consisting of 45 questions, with eight sections: (a) background information, (b) muscular strength and power development, (c) speed development, (d) plyometrics, (e) flexibility development, (f) physical testing, (g) technology use, and (h) programing. A frequency analysis was used to assess and report responses to fixed response questions, and thematic-analysis used for open-ended questions to create clear, identifiable and distinct themes. All strength and conditioning coaches were educated to degree level or higher, 65% held strength and conditioning certifications and 54% held soccer coaching certifications. Concentric (100%) and eccentric (98%) modes of resistance were the most commonly prescribed, whereas the squat (including variations) (52%) was deemed the most important exercise for soccer players. Hang clean (33%) and multiple hops/lunges (89%) were the most programed Olympic weightlifting and plyometric exercises. Global Positioning Systems (94%) were the most utilized technology-based equipment. Time, scheduling and fixtures were the biggest issues faced, which made it difficult to periodize training programs and apply appropriate training loads. Furthermore, strength and conditioning coaches would like to further integrate technology to comprehensively monitor and test players, while also believing that technology will continue to be developed and integrated in the future. Strength and conditioning coaches from professional soccer can use the information from this study to review current practices and also provide ideas for diversifying or modifying future practices.     

Practices of strength and conditioning coaches in Brazilian elite soccer

Brazil is the leading global exporter of soccer players, with approximately 2,000 international transfers to different clubs per year. Although Brazilian players compete in the most prestigious soccer leagues worldwide, the habitual training methods, strategies, and routines of Brazilian soccer strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) are undocumented. This study used a standard online survey to collect and characterize the strength and conditioning practices of Brazilian soccer SCCs. Forty-nine SCCs (age: 40.4 ± 7.5 years; professional experience: 15.3 ± 7.5 years) working in Brazilian professional soccer teams participated in this study. The survey consisted of eight sections: 1) background information; 2) muscular strength-power development; 3) speed training; 4) plyometrics; 5) flexibility training; 6) physical testing; 7) technology use; and 8) programing. Results indicated that training and testing practices of Brazilian SCCs are strongly affected by the congested fixture schedules, extensive traveling distances, and socio-economic disparities between different regions of the country. We describe all these different strategies and methods in detail, providing a comprehensive view and a critical examination of Brazilian soccer strength and conditioning practices. Brazilian SCCs and professional soccer organizations can use the findings from this study to develop training strategies and customize education programs. Practitioners from other countries can use this information to design training programs closely tailored to the background of Brazilian athletes, which may support their adaptation to different competitive scenarios and game demands, such as those found in the most important soccer leagues worldwide.     

Professional development themes in strength and conditioning coaches

The purpose of this study was to explore professional development themes in experienced strength and conditioning coaches. Strength and conditioning coaches (N = 15, mean age = 34.3 years, SD = 5.2 years) with 11.4 (SD = 4.9) years experience working with elite, professional, or talented athletes were interviewed about their professional development. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and content analyzed. Over time, subjects' service-delivery practices became more flexible and client driven. Their role understanding also broadened to include various dimensions, such as the need to consider various stakeholders and the value of good relationships with athletes. The subjects shifted from relying on external justification for professional decision making to their experience-based knowledge. The subjects believed athlete work experience, interactions with senior strength and conditioning coaches and other colleagues, the professional literature, and nonprofessional experiences, such as their own athletic experience and sales or managerial training, were the primary influences on their professional development. Typically, the subjects experienced anxiety about their competence, both early in their careers and when working in new contexts or with new athlete groups, but over time, they developed increased confidence. In addition, the subjects experienced reduced narcissism over time about the control they had over athletes and their competitive results. The current results provide information about the characteristics of effective strength and conditioning coaches, the ways they develop their competencies to help athletes, and the emotions they experience throughout their careers. These results may help strength and conditioning practitioners in planning and optimizing their professional development and effectiveness with athletes.     

An analysis of teaching and coaching behaviors of elite strength and conditioning coaches

The purpose of this study was to analyze the coaching behaviors of 6 elite strength and conditioning coaches from the southern region of the United States. The Arizona State University Coaching Observation Instrument, consisting of 16 behavioral categories, was used for the collection of data. Each coach was observed and filmed on 3 occasions. All observations occurred in the respective team's weight training facility. The data collected in this study consisted of a percentage analysis of the observed coaching behaviors. The most frequently observed behaviors were silent monitoring (21.99%), management (14.62%), and hustle (11.12%). These results indicate that this population of strength and conditioning coaches was predominantly engaged in observation of their athletes (silent monitoring), organization of the weight training activity (management), and verbal statements to intensify effort (hustle). The results are similar to other studies with coaches who were also involved in individual rather than team sports.     

Kinetic analysis of complex training rest interval effect on vertical jump performance

Complex training has been recommended as a method of incorporating plyometrics with strength training. Some research suggests that plyometric performance is enhanced when performed 3-4 minutes after the strength training set, whereas other studies have failed to find any complex training advantage when plyometrics are performed immediately after the strength training portion of the complex. The purpose of this study was to determine if there is an ergogenic advantage associated with complex training and if there is an optimal time for performing plyometrics after the strength training set. Subjects were 21 NCAA Division I athletes who performed a countermovement vertical jump, a set of 5 repetitions maximum (5 RM) squats, and 5 trials of countermovement vertical jump at intervals of 10 seconds and 1, 2, 3, and 4 minutes after the squat. Jump height and peak ground reaction forces were acquired via a force platform. The pre-squat jump performance was compared with the post-squat jumps. Repeated measures ANOVA determined a difference (p 0.05) was found comparing subsequent jumps (0.72-0.76 m) to the pre-squat condition (0.74 m). When comparing high to low strength individuals, there was no effect on jump performance following the squat (p > 0.05). In conclusion, complex training does not appear to enhance jumping performance significantly and actually decreases it when the jump is performed immediately following the strength training set; however, a nonsignificant trend toward improvement seemed to be present. Therefore to optimize jump performance it appears that athletes should not perform jumps immediately following resistance training. It may be possible that beyond 4 minutes of recovery performance could be enhanced; however, that was not within the scope of the current study.     

Job analysis of college Division I-A football strength and conditioning coaches

This investigation consisted of a job analysis of 6 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I-A strength and conditioning coaches (SCC). All the subjects in the study were primarily responsible for providing strength and conditioning services to their institution's football programs. The procedures used for the gathering of data consisted of 3 questionnaires and a semi-structured interview. The questionnaires were followed up by the semi-structured interview. The purpose of this format was to use the semi-structured interview to delve more deeply into the issues raised by the questionnaires. The major job responsibilities and tasks are highlighted. These included conducting training session for athletes, disciplining athletes for infractions of team rules, on campus recruiting, and professional scout liaison to the National Football League. These coaches' perceptions concerning their profession, work environment, relationships with supervisors and co-workers, and the effect the job has on their spouses and other family members are also emphasized.     

Comparison of two twelve week off-season combined training programs on entry level collegiate soccer players' performance

Olympic-style lifts (OSL) and plyometric exercises (PE) are frequently combined with traditional resistance training (TRT) to improve athletic performance. The goal of this study was to directly compare the performance effect of TRT (30 minutes) combined with either OSL or nondepth-jump PE (15 minutes) on entry level competitive collegiate athletes. Ten female and 5 male competitive soccer players, divided into 2 groups, completed 12 weeks of tri-weekly training during their off-season. Countermovement vertical jump, 4 repetition maximum squat, 25-m sprint, and figure-8 drill on a 5-dot mat were conducted pre-, mid-, and postintervention. Significant improvements were made by both groups in each performance parameter over the 12-week period (p < 0.05), with no significant differences found between the training groups. Although these training modalities may achieve their results through slightly different mechanisms, the performance-related improvements may not be significantly different for entry-level collegiate athletes with little resistance training experience.     

The effects of plyometric vs. dynamic stabilization and balance training on power, balance, and landing force in female athletes

Neuromuscular training protocols that include both plyometrics and dynamic balance exercises can significantly improve biomechanics and neuromuscular performance and reduce anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of plyometrics (PLYO) versus dynamic stabilization and balance training (BAL) on power, balance, strength, and landing force in female athletes. Either PLYO or BAL were included as a component of a dynamic neuromuscular training regimen that reduced measures related to ACL injury and increased measures of performance. Nineteen high school female athletes participated in training 3 times a week for 7 weeks. The PLYO (n = 8) group did not receive any dynamic balance exercises and the BAL (n = 11) group did not receive any maximum effort jumps during training. Pretraining vs. posttraining measures of impact force and standard deviation of center of pressure (COP) were recorded during a single leg hop and hold. Subjects were also tested for training effects in strength (isokinetic and isoinertial) and power (vertical jump). The percent change from pretest to posttest in vertical ground reaction force was significantly different between the BAL and PLYO groups on the dominant side (p < 0.05). Both groups decreased their standard deviation of center of pressure (COP) during hop landings in the medial/lateral direction on their dominant side, which equalized pretested side to side differences. Both groups increased hamstrings strength and vertical jump. The results of this study suggest that both PLYO and BAL training are effective at increasing measures of neuromuscular power and control. A combination of PLYO and BAL training may further maximize the effectiveness of preseason training for female athletes.     

Using goal orientations to understand motivation in strength training

Despite the importance that today's athletics place on strength training, research exploring the motivation of athletes in this arena is sparse. It is known that not all athletes will use the same motivational cognitions as inspiration, and these differences can be explored through achievement goal orientations. Through questionnaire data and semistructured interviews, the present study investigated how collegiate athletes maintain high levels of motivation over a period of time during strength training and explored relationships among five goal orientations: task-orientation, self-enhancing ego-orientation, self-defeating ego-orientation, social-approval orientation, and work-avoidance orientation. Subjects (N = 133), comprising 90 men and 43 women, were current varsity collegiate athletes from 15 different sports at a major Midwestern university. In addition, using a screener survey to assess achievement goal orientations, 15 subjects from the sample group who demonstrated a stronger inclination to only one achievement goal orientation were interviewed to gain a more in-depth understanding of their motivation cognitions in strength training. Results showed that the strongest achievement goal orientations reported from all athletes were task-orientation and social-approval. Additionally, five higher-order themes (significant others, improvement, competitive demands, being stronger than others, and miscellaneous) were consistent among the interviewed athletes when describing how they stay motivated during strength training. Whereas all athletes were able to describe at least one motivational strategy they employed during strength training, the dominant achievement goal orientation of some athletes influenced their motivational strategy. By employing the T.A.R.G.E.T. model (), strength coaches can foster adaptive achievement goal orientations and thereby enhance intrinsic motivation for athletes engaging in strength training.     

Effects of complex training on explosive strength in adolescent male basketball players

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a complex training program, a combined practice of weight training and plyometrics, on explosive strength development of young basketball players. Twenty-five young male athletes, aged 14-15 years old, were assessed using squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), Abalakov test (ABA), depth jump (DJ), mechanical power (MP), and medicine ball throw (MBT), before and after a 10-week in-season training program. Both the control group (CG; n = 10) and the experimental group (EG; n = 15) kept up their regular sports practice; additionally, the EG performed 2 sessions per week of a complex training program. The EG significantly improved in the SJ, CMJ, ABA, and MBT values (p < 0.05). The CG significantly decreased the values (p < 0.05) of CMJ, ABA, and MP, while significantly increasing the MBT values (p < 0.05). Our results support the use of complex training to improve the upper and lower body explosivity levels in young basketball players. In conclusion, this study showed that more strength conditioning is needed during the sport practice season. Furthermore, we also conclude that complex training is a useful working tool for coaches, innovative in this strength-training domain, equally contributing to a better time-efficient training.     

Effect of Olympic and traditional resistance training on vertical jump improvement in high school boys

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a ballistic resistance training program of Olympic lifts with those of a traditional resistance training program of power lifts on vertical jump improvement in male high school athletes. Twenty-seven male student athletes were recruited from a high school football program at a small, rural school in the Southeast. The subjects were divided into an Olympic training group (OT, n = 11), a power training group (PT, n = 10), and a control group (n = 6). Analysis of variance was used to determine whether a significant mean difference existed among groups on vertical jump improvement after 8 weeks of group-specific training. Effect size of vertical jump improvement between groups, and correlations between strength and vertical jump performance, were also examined. There was no significant mean difference (p >or= 0.05) among OT, PT, and control groups, but large effect sizes between OT and control (d = 1.06) and PT and control (d = 0.94) demonstrate that both OT and PT are effective in improving vertical jump performance in male high school athletes. Moderate to high correlations were noted between squat score and vertical jump after adjusting for body weight (r = 0.42) and between power clean and vertical jump after adjusting for body weight (r = 0.75). Findings from the current study indicate that Olympic lifts as well as power lifts provide improvement in vertical jump performance and that Olympic lifts may provide a modest advantage over power lifts for vertical jump improvement in high school athletes.     

Dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes in central Nebraska and their sources of information

The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes. The project was also directed at identifying the sources these student-athletes used for acquiring information about dietary supplements. One hundred thirty nine high school athletes (99 males; 34 females; mean age = 15.8 +/- 1.19 years) volunteered to participate in this study. A 16-question anonymous survey instrument examined use of dietary supplements, reasons for use, type of sport participation, and sources of information regarding dietary supplements. Of the participants in this study, 22.3% (N = 31) reported currently taking dietary supplements. There was no relationship found between dietary supplement use and age. There were a significantly higher number of males reporting current dietary supplement use. Of those who reported to be currently taking dietary supplements, sports performance (N = 25) was the most reported reason for use. There were no significant differences found in reported dietary supplement use between any of the sports. Of the participants, 38.1% (N = 53) listed their coach as their best source of information on dietary supplements. The results of this study offer the current literature some additional insight into trends in supplement use among high school student athletes. Practical implications suggest that it may be necessary to ensure coaches have sufficient knowledge about dietary supplements so that adolescent athletes are receiving accurate information.     

Athletes' use of exercise imagery during weight training

Imagery is a cognitive process during which people use their minds to create (or recreate) experiences that are similar to real-life situations. This study examined how college athletes used imagery during weight training. Subjects were 295 Division I (n = 163) and Division II (n = 132) college student athletes (men: n = 138, women: n = 157) who participated in a weight training program as a requirement of their sport. They completed a slightly modified version of the "Weight Lifting Imagery Questionnaire." Results showed that appearance imagery (i.e., images related to the attainment of a fit-looking body) was used and considered the most effective followed by technique imagery (i.e., images related to performing the skill and techniques correctly with good form) and energy imagery (i.e., images related to getting "psyched up" or feeling energized). Other variables that effected imagery use were gender, age, time of season, and levels of motivation. In addition, gender, previous imagery training, and level of motivation had an effect on the perceptions of imagery effectiveness. Confidence in the ability to image was associated with both imagery use and effectiveness, and imagery use and effectiveness were associated with confidence in the weight room. The findings support previous research in exercise imagery that appearance imagery is most used followed by technique and energy imagery and extend them in such a way that strength coaches have practical advice on how to use imagery in a positive way with their athletes. Suggestions about how strength coaches can use imagery with their clients are provided.