VARIATION IN SEED WEIGHT AND ITS EFFECTS ON GERMINATION IN PASTINACA SATIVA L. (UMBELLIFERAE)

Pastinaca sativa (wild parsnip) produces seeds on the primary, secondary, and tertiary umbels of the flowering stalk. Within plants, variation in seed weight is about twofold. Secondary and tertiary seed weight is 73% and 50% of primary seed weight, respectively. Maximum variation in seed weight between plants is sixfold when tertiary seeds from a small plant are compared to primary seeds from a large plant. Within an umbel order, variation in seed weight between plants is correlated with plant size. Under autumn germinating conditions in the laboratory, final germination of seeds from different umbel orders does not differ but smaller seeds germinate more rapidly than larger seeds. Under spring germination conditions in the laboratory, significantly more primary and secondary seeds germinate than tertiary seeds and the rate of germination is independent of seed weight. Field germination of seeds from different umbel orders produces similar results except that in the spring both secondary and tertiary seed germination is lower than that of primary seeds. These results suggest that with respect to seed germination characteristics small seeds may have a competitive advantage over large seeds in the autumn because they germinate more quickly, but in the spring small seeds are at a disadvantage because they have lower overall germination. Because most germination in the field occurs in the spring, population recruitment from small seeds is likely to be substanially less than that from large seeds.     

Relationship between Position on the Parent Plant and Dormancy Characteristics of Seeds of Three Cultivars of Celery (Apium graveolens)

Germination and seedling emergence studies were made on seeds harvested from four different umbel positions of three cultivars of celery (Apium graveolens L.). Although heavier seeds were produced from primary umbels than from other umbels, these were less viable as measured by the germination percentage at I8°C in the light. However, germination of viable seeds from quaternary umbels was lower than that of seeds from primary umbels at 18°C in the dark when incubated with GA₄, (2 × 10 ^?4M) and seed from secondary and tertiary umbels tended to be intermediate in response. All viable seeds germinated when N⁶-benzyladenine (10^?2M) was used in combination with GA₄. Seeds from quaternary umbels of two of the cultivars had a lower high-temperature limit for germination in the dark than did seeds from other umbels. In glasshouse experiments the emergence of viable ‘quaternary’ seeds of these cultivars was higher than that of ‘primary’ seeds. Under these conditions the time to 50% of the final emergence as determined after 42 days was similar for seeds from all umbel positions within each cultivar. In two varieties seedling weights were greater from seeds of primary as compared to quaternary umbels, and in general, the largest seedlings arose from the heaviest seeds and the smallest from the lightest seeds in all three cultivars.     

The effects of ripening and drying of carrot seed (Daucus carota) crops on germination

Carrot seeds taken from the parent plant were capable of germinating before the stage when maximum seed dry weight was reached but even after this stage, when the seed moisture content had fallen below 20%, improvement in seed germination characteristics continued. In the latter stages of seed growth losses by shedding were 12–20 kg/ha/day. For low density crops (10 plants/m²) the yield of viable seed was at a maximum in crops whose seed was harvested with a moisture content of between 20 and 40% but no consistent relationship could be established for high density crops (80 plants/m²). There were no effects of umbel order or plant density on mean germination time or spread of germination. At any early harvest, percentage germination was highest for primary-umbel-seeds and seeds from low density crops but the differences between the seed origins diminished with later harvests. Drying the seeds on the umbels improved the percentage germination, reduced the mean germination time and the spread of germination particularly at the early harvests compared with seeds removed from the umbels and germinated immediately without drying.     

Relationships between position on the parent plant and germination characteristics of seeds of parsley (Petroselinium crispum Nym.)

The percentage germination of seeds of parsley cv. Imperial Curled was higher in the light than in the dark, the high temperature limits for germination being 30 and 28°C for light and dark respectively. At the higher temperatures, the germination rate was slower in the dark. At 30°C, treatment with a gibberellin A_4/7 mixture at 2 × 10^–4 M partially alleviated the inhibiting effect of darkness on the germination percentage. Pre-incubation of parsley seeds at 35°C in the dark for 30 h increased the rate, but decreased the percentage, of germination of seeds incubated at 15°C in the light. Germination and seedling emergence studies were made on seed harvested from four different umbel positions. Although heavier seeds were produced from primary umbels than from other umbel orders, they were less viable as measured by seedling emergence in the glasshouse. The rate of emergence was decreased with increasing umbel order i.e. with later seed development: this was reflected in subsequent seedling weights, with seedlings from quarternary umbel seeds being about half the weight of those from primary umbel seeds. The upper temperature limit for dark germination was only slightly affected by umbel order, with quarternary umbel seeds being the most thermo-inhibited.Abbreviations BA N⁶-benzyladenine - GA_4/7 a mixture of gibberellins A₄ and A₇ - SD8339 6-benzyl-amino-9-(tetrahydropyran-2-yl)-9H-purine     

Compensatory reproduction in a biennial herb following insect defloration

Summary The ability of the biennial herb, Pastinaca sativa L. (wild parsnip), to respond to and compensate for destruction of primary umbel seeds by the larvae of Depressaria pastinacella (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) was analyzed by comparing umbel and seed production of damaged and undamaged plants collected from five populations. Plants with a basal stem diameter smaller than 8 mm suffer a reduction in seed set of about 50% when the primary umbel is destroyed but larger plants are able to compensate for loss of primary umbel seeds by increased seed set of tertiary umbels. Depending on plant size, this is due to either an increase in the number of tertiary umbels that reach maturity or an increase in the number of seeds per tertiary umbel. Although seeds of tertiary umbels are significantly smaller than those of primary or secondary umbels, their viability is equivalent to that of secondary seeds and may be greater than that of primary seeds. Characteristics of P. sativa's reproduction, such as the long flowering period and the initiation of more umbels than the plant is normally able to bring to maturity, are important to P. sativa's ability to compensate for the effects of herbivore damage.     

The influence of hygroscopic movement on seed dispersal in Daucus carota (Apiaceae)

Summary The influence of hygroscopic movement on seed dispersal in Daucus carota was examined. When relative humidity increases, umbels containing mature fruits close; when relative humidity drops, umbels open. Tests of the effectiveness of smalland large-angled umbels on dispersing seeds under various conditions demonstrate that umbels responding greatly to relative humidity (i.e. opening wide) lose seeds more quickly than do umbels responding little, and do not disperse them as far. As relative humidity increases, number of dispersing seeds drops to near zero. Response to changes in relative humidity within an umbel progressively increases from late August when dispersal begins. Umbels that slowly increase their response retain some seeds that may disperse over snow in winter. Individual variation in response to relative humidity is high among plants beginning dispersal at the same time. This variability is probably maintained by the variable consequences of dispersing seeds at different times.     

Morpho-Biochemical characterization of Kalazeera (Bunium persicum Boiss. Fedts) germplasm grown in Global temperate ecologies

The present investigation explores the variability of Bunium persicum populations belonging to different regions. Variability among 74 genotypes for thirty-seven traits (29 quantitative and 8 qualitative) were studied to ascertain the population structure of the Bunium persicum. Among the agro-morphological traits, wide range of variability was recorded in tuber shape, tuber colour, seed shape, seed colour, growth habit, leaf shape, leaf colour, umbel shape, umbel colour, plant height (22.90–96.52 cm), primary branches plant⁻¹ (1–6), umbel diameter of primary umbel (6.17 – 13.67 cm), number of primary umbels plant⁻¹ (1–12), umbels plant⁻¹ (8–40), seed yield per plant (0.55–13.10 g), essential oil content (3.2–9.3 %) etc. Significant and positive association was observed between number of seeds primary^-1 umbel (r = 0.91), plant height (r = 0.65), number of seeds primary^-1 umbel (0.52), number of seeds primary^-1 umbel (0.43), number of seeds secondary^-1 umbel (0.38) with number of umblets secondary^-1 umbel. Cluster analysis classified the genotypes with different geographical origin into two major clusters and sub-clusters. Cluster-I comprises of 50 genotypes and cluster - II of 24 genotypes while the genotype SRS-KZ-189 from Kargil population was separated as an individual sub-group. Principal component (PC1) and (PC2) harbors accounted 20.2% and 14% of total variation. Variability of Kalazeera genotypes would facilitate the plant breeders to implement and design various crop improvement programme in future.     

Seed longevity and fire: germination responses of an exotic perennial herb in NW Patagonian grasslands (Argentina)

Fire affects grassland composition by selectively influencing recruitment. Some exotic species can increase their abundance as a consequence of fire-stimulated seed germination, but response may depend on seed age. Rumex acetosella L. (Polygonaceae, sheep's sorrel) is a cosmopolitan herb that has invaded NW Patagonia's grasslands. This species forms persistent soil seed banks and increases after disturbances, particularly fire. We studied how fire and seed longevity influence R. acetosella germination. In 2008, we conducted laboratory experiments where we exposed different-aged seeds (up to 19 years old) to heat, smoke, charcoal, ash and control treatments. Total percentage germination and mean germination time depended on both seed age and fire treatment. Germination of younger seeds decreased with increasing temperature. There was no general pattern in germination responses of different-aged seeds to smoke, charcoal and ash. While smoke improved the germination of fresh seeds, charcoal decreased germination. Germination of untreated seeds was negatively correlated with seed age, and mean germination time increased with seed age. In most treatments, fresh seeds had lower germination than 1-5-year-old seeds, indicating an after-ripening requirement. Smoke stimulates R. acetosella germination, causing successful recruitment during post-fire conditions. Fresh seeds are particularly responsive to fire factors, possibly because they have not experienced physical degradation and are more receptive to environmental stimuli. Knowing the colonisation potential from the soil seed bank of this species during post-fire conditions will allow us to predict their impact on native communities.     

PEG引发对芹菜种子活力影响的研究

以芹菜种子为试验材料,研究了不同浓度的聚乙二醇（PEG）及其不同浸种时间对芹菜种子活力指标以及电导率的影响。结果表明,选择50mg／L的PEG处理芹菜种子能够显著提高其发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数、活力指数、芽长、根长、鲜重和干重。不同浓度PEG处理的芹菜种子的浸泡电导率和绝对电导率均显著低于对照组,且以50mg／L的PEG处理的两种电导率值最低。因此,通过选择50mg／LPEG浸泡芹菜种子4h,能够使其活力得到显著的提高。     

A REEXAMINATION OF THE POLLEN-DONATION HYPOTHESIS IN AN EXPERIMENTAL POPULATION OF ASCLEPIAS EXALTATA

The evolution of large floral displays in hermaphroditic flowering plants has been attributed to natural selection acting to enhance male, rather than female, reproductive success. Proponents of the “pollen-donation hypothesis” have assumed that maternal resources, rather than levels of effective pollination, limit fruit set. We investigated the pollen-donation hypothesis in an experimental population of poke milkweed, Asclepias exaltata, where effective pollination did not limit fruit set. Specifically, we examined the effects of flower number per plant, and flower number per umbel on male reproductive success (number of fruits sired) and female reproductive success (number of fruits matured). In 1990, a paternity analysis was performed on fruits collected from 53 plants whose inflorescences were not manipulated. Flower number per plant was significantly correlated with male success, but not with plant gender. Flower number per plant was also significantly correlated with female success, but umbel number and stem number per plant together explained more than half (58%) the variation in female success. The percentage of fruit set was not significantly correlated with flower number per plant. Plants with large floral displays did not disproportionately increase in male reproductive success, relative to female success, as predicted by the pollen-donation hypothesis. In 1991, the effect of flower number per umbel on male and female reproductive success was investigated. Flower number per umbel was manipulated on four umbels per plant by removing flowers to leave 6, 12, or 18 flowers in each umbel. Plants with the largest umbels effectively pollinated twice as many flowers on other plants, but produced only 1.35 times as many fruits as plants with 6 and 12 flowers per umbel. Relative maleness of plants with large umbels was nearly twice that of small and medium umbels. Although these observations are consistent with the pollen-donation hypothesis at the level of umbels, they are problematic, because much of the variation in flower number per umbel exists within, rather than among, plants in natural populations. Thus, plants consist of both reproductively male (large) and female (small) inflorescences, which act to increase total reproductive success. It is therefore inappropriate to explain the evolution of large floral displays in milkweeds solely in terms of potential male reproductive success.     

Bee boys and fly girls: Do pollinators prefer male or female umbels in protandrous parsnip,Trachymene incisa (Apiaceae)?

Abstract Complete dichogamy occurs when temporal separation prevents any overlap in male and female function within and among flowers of one or more inflorescences. Although dichogamy may increase outcrossing and prevent inbreeding, it also results in the presentation of inflorescences with different floral resources. Pollinators may prefer one gender over the other based on these differences, which can reduce the transfer of pollen to conspecific stigmas and reduce floral resources for effective pollinators. We investigated whether the insect visitors of Trachymene incisa (Apiaceae), an Australian herb demonstrating complete protandry at the umbel level, show a preference for male or female umbels. The male phase umbels present pollen and nectar, whereas the female phase umbels offer nectar only. Therefore, we expect pollen‐collecting insects to favour male umbels, whereas insects that forage only for nectar will favour female umbels. In natural patches that exhibited a male umbel bias, insects showed a preference for male phase umbels at Agnes Banks in 2003 and at Myall Lakes in both 2003 and 2004. By contrast, insects showed no preference for umbel phases, visiting umbels at a similar frequency to which they occurred, at Agnes Banks in 2004 and at Tomago in both 2003 and 2004. This suggests spatial and temporal variation in insect preferences for umbel phases that differ in floral rewards. In experimental arrays where the umbel gender ratio was equal, there were no significant differences between male and female umbels in terms of insect visitation during a foraging trip and mean foraging time per visit. The differing patterns of preference may be due to a differential response by insects when the umbel ratios vary, where a male bias in umbel genders leads to a preference for male umbels, whereas an equal umbel gender ratio leads to equal visitation to male and female phase umbels.     

Seed Dispersal of Morus macroura (Moraceae) by Two Frugivorous Bats in Xishuangbanna, SW China

The dispersal of Morus macroura seeds by two species of frugivorous bats ( Rousettus leschenaulti and Cynopterus sphinx ) was studied in a forest at Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden in Southwest China from March to May 2005. Feeding roosts were identified within 500 m around parent trees and the types and number of seed loads under each roost were recorded. We found feeding roost density decreased with increasing distance from the parent, but found no correlation between distance and seed deposition. The effect of bat digestion on seed germination was investigated, and we found that germination percentage of all treatments involving ingestion by bats was significantly lower than control seeds and some germination parameters of seeds from different treatments changed.     

晋西北丘陵风沙区不同种植年限柠条的种子形态特征

以晋西北丘陵风沙区不同种植年限(6、12、18、40和50 年)人工柠条的3种大小类型种子为对象,分析不同年限柠条种子形态特征,从繁殖策略的角度探讨人工植被恢复潜力。结果表明:人工柠条的结实量随着种植年限的增加总体呈上升趋势,在种植50年达到最大值(584粒·株^-1);种子长度、种子宽度、种子形状指数随着种植年限的增加总体呈下降趋势,在种植50年达到最小值(5.09 mm、2.76 mm、0.05);种子萌发率随种植年限的增加呈上升-下降-上升的波动变化趋势,在种植12年达到最大值(97.2%)。结实量与种子重量呈显著负相关。种子萌发率与种子重量密切相关,重量小的种子萌发率低,更易于形成持久种子库。相关分析表明,结实量与株高、地上生物量和地下生物量呈显著正相关;种子形状与新枝数呈显著负相关。这表明随着种植年限的增加,柠条繁殖对策由种植前期(6～12年)大种子较多的K策略向种植后期(18～50年)小种子逐渐为主的r策略转变,即柠条既要保证繁殖体数量,又要保证繁殖体的持久性,从而产生了数量更多的小而圆的种子。     

混合盐碱胁迫对芹菜种子萌发的影响

NaCl、Na2SO4、NaHCO3和Na2CO3按不同比例混合,模拟盐度和pH变化规律与天然盐碱地相似的15种盐碱条件,探讨混合盐碱胁迫对芹菜(Apium graveolens)种子萌发的影响.结果表明:芹菜种子的发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数和活力指数均随盐浓度的升高,pH的增大呈下降趋势.芹菜种子的萌发主要受盐浓度的影响,不同盐浓度间的影响差异大;当盐浓度为200 mmol/L时,基本不萌发.     

Timing and extent of tissue removal affect reproduction characteristics of an invasive species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Heracleum mantegazzianum</Emphasis>

Response of the invasive species Heracleum mantegazzianum to experimental removal of tissues was studied in the Czech Republic. The study aimed at determining (i) how efficiently plants respond, in terms of quantity and quality of produced fruit, to the removal of different amounts of generative and/or vegetative tissues; and (ii) whether regeneration ability depends on the time of treatment. Total number of fruits and their mean weight were reduced by removal of leaves, but germination percentage and rate of germination did not differ from control. More vigorous individuals compensated for the loss of tissues to a higher degree, and the advantage of being larger increased with severity of the treatment. Of 40 plants with umbels completely removed, 18 (45.0%) regenerated and produced on average 103.4 ± 220.1 (mean ± SD) fruits. Total fruit numbers and total fruit weight of regenerating plants significantly differed neither among treatments nor from the control, but some treatments resulted in poorer germination compared to the control. Umbels removed from plants at the beginning of fruit development and left at the locality produced 18.6% of fruit numbers of control plants, and 24% of these seeds germinated. Control by removing umbels from plants must ensure that they are collected and destroyed. From the management viewpoint, there is a trade-off between later umbel removal, resulting in more efficient reduction in fecundity but necessity to handle more developed fruits, and early treatment, leading to a high regeneration, that produces seed of sufficient quantity and very little affected in terms of quality.     

植冠与土壤种子库储存种子的萌发特性及策略

为明确黄土丘陵沟壑区植物种子库如何调控种子萌发来提高个体适合度,选择研究区7种具有种子库的主要物种为研究对象,以刚成熟和室内储存种子为对照,比较植冠宿存(5个宿存期)和土壤埋藏(5a埋藏期)对植物种子萌发特性的影响,探讨植冠种子库与土壤种子库储存下的种子萌发策略。结果表明:7种植物种子经过不同种子库储存后萌发特性表现出明显的种间差异,黄刺玫(Rosa xanthina)和水栒子(Cotoneaster multiflorus)种子萌发力表现为植冠宿存不变型、土壤储存增强型,土壤储存明显提高水栒子种子萌发速率;达乌里胡枝子(Lespedeza davurica)和狼牙刺(Sophora davidii)种子萌发力表现为植冠宿存增强型、土壤储存减弱型,种子萌发历时表现为植冠宿存延长型,土壤种子库储存还可加快达乌里胡枝子萌发速率、缩短萌发历时;茭蒿(Artemisia giralaii)和铁杆蒿(Artemisia gmelinii),种子萌发率随植冠宿存时间先升高后降低,随土壤储存时间先降低后升高,土壤储存可推迟其萌发,铁杆蒿种子萌发速率在植冠与土壤储存后均加快;紫丁香(Syringa oblata)种子萌发率随植冠宿存先升高后降低,土壤储存明显加快其种子启动萌发与速率。在黄土丘陵沟壑区,植物种子经过植冠或土壤种子库储存,或增加、加快、提早萌发充分利用有利条件提高占据性,或减少、减缓、推迟萌发分摊不利条件的风险;而且该区植物植冠与土壤储存后种子萌发特性间的关系,体现各自适应环境与应对干扰的分工与协作策略,主要表现为:单一主导型和相辅相成型。     

Functional trade‐offs and the phylogenetic dispersion of seed traits in a biodiversity hotspot of the Mountains of Southwest China

The diversity of traits associated with plant regeneration is often shaped by functional trade‐offs where plants typically do not excel at every function because resources allocated to one function cannot be allocated to another. By analyzing correlations among seed traits, empirical studies have shown that there is a trade‐off between seedling development and the occupation of new habitats, although only a small range of taxa have been tested; whether such trade‐off exists in a biodiverse and complex landscape remains unclear. Here, we amassed seed trait data of 1,119 species from a biodiversity hotspot of the Mountains of Southwest China and analyzed the relationship between seed mass and the number of seeds and between seed mass and time to germination. Our results showed that seed mass was negatively correlated with seed number but positively correlated with time to germination. The same trend was found regardless of variation in life‐form and phylogenetic conservatism. Furthermore, the relation between seed mass and other seed traits was randomly dispersed across the phylogeny at both the order and family levels. Collectively, results suggest that there is a functional trade‐off between seedling development and new habitat occupation for seed plants in this region. Larger seeds tend to produce fewer seedlings but with greater fitness compared to those produced by smaller seeds, whereas smaller seeds tend to have a larger number of seeds that germinate faster compared to large‐seeded species. Apart from genetic constraints, species that produce large seeds will succeed in sites where resource availability is low, whereas species with high colonization ability (those that produce a high number of seeds per fruit) will succeed in new niches. This study provides a mechanistic explanation for the relatively high levels of plant diversity currently found in a heterogeneous region of the Mountains of Southwest China.     

Interactions between seed priming treatments and nine seed lots of carrot, celery and onion. I. Laboratory germination

Samples of three seed lots of each of three cultivars of carrot, celery and onion were primed in polyethylene glycol solution for 2 weeks at 15 °C. Priming reduced the mean germination times (recorded at 15 °C) of all seed lots (compared to the untreated control) by 3–4 days in carrot, 6–10 days in celery and 3–5 days in onion. The largest reductions in mean germination time occurred in the slowest-germinating seed lots. There were highly significant interactions between priming and cultivars, and between priming and seed lots within cultivars for each species. Drying back the primed seeds at 15 °C increased the mean germination times (compared to primed seed which had not been dried) by 0·6 day in carrot and 1·4 days in celery, and there was no interaction with cultivars or seed lots. The corresponding increase for onion was either 1·0 or 1·8 days, according to the cultivar, but this variation was largely attributable to differences in time taken for the dried seeds to re-imbibe. Seeds dried back at 30 °C germinated 0·2·0·7 day (depending on the species) later than those dried at 15 °C. Percentage germination was not affected by either priming or drying back. Priming reduced the spread of germination times in all cultivars. For primed and dried-back seed, the spread of germination times was larger than that of primed seed in certain cultivars, but was always smaller than that of untreated seeds.     

野生鸭儿芹种子休眠特性及破除方法

鸭儿芹种子具有休眠特性,且休眠期长,不经任何处理的种子很难萌发,影响其人工种植。研究了鸭儿芹种子的休眠特性和解除休眠的最佳方法,为我国人工种植野生鸭儿芹提供理论依据。结果表明:TTC法对种子活力的测定表明有活力的种子为(55.33±3.71)%;切破种皮种子与完整种子吸水率在前12 h相差较大,但最终吸水率相差不大,分别达到(70.00±1)%和(68.32±0.32)%,表明种皮并不阻碍种子吸水;种子中存在内源抑制物,其粗提液在较低浓度下即可抑制芹菜种子的萌发;鸭儿芹种子成熟时胚未分化完全,胚率为(28.65±2.488)%,经过低温处理后完成后熟,胚率达到(65.93±3.86)%,萌发率达到100%,因此鸭儿芹种子具有形态生理休眠特性。清水浸种和低温冷藏共同处理可有效解除其休眠,浸种和低温冷藏具有交互效应,浸种36 h、5℃冷藏30d即可解除其休眠,萌发率达到100%,发芽势达到(91.11±0.91)%。已破除休眠的种子适宜其萌发的温度范围扩大(15.0—27.5℃),而且在土壤中也可较好地萌发,萌发率达到(96.67±3.33)%,发芽势达到(71.11±1.93)%。     

Fate of the soil seed bank of giant ragweed and its significance in preventing and controlling its invasion in grasslands

Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida, L. henceforth referred to as GR), an annual non‐native invasive weed, may cause health problems and can reduce agricultural productivity. Chemical control of GR in grasslands may have irreversible side effects on herbs and livestock. In an attempt to propose a solution to the harmful effects of GR on grasslands, this study explores the fate of its soil seed bank (SSB) and considers the physical control of its SSB reduction. By studying GR distributed in grasslands of the Yili Valley, Xinjiang, China, we measured the spatial and temporal changes in seed density, seed germination, dormancy, and death. We analyzed seed germination, dormancy, and death following different storage periods. The study analyzed population characteristics over time, including seed fate, and examined physical control methods for reducing the SSB density. The SSB of GR occurs in the upper 0–15 cm of soil in grasslands. Seed density in the SSB decreased by 68.1% to 82.01% from the reproductive growth period to the senescence period. More than 98.7% of the seeds were rotten, eaten, germinated, dispersed, or died within one year after being produced. The seed germination rate of the SSB decreased with the number of years after invasion. When stored for 0.5 or 3.5 years, seed germination rates fell by 40%, during which time seed death rate increased by almost 40%. When GR was completely eradicated for two consecutive years, the SSB and population densities decreased by >99%. The vast majority of GR seeds germinated or died within one year; the germination rate decreased significantly if the seeds were stored dry at room temperature for a long time. Newly produced seeds are the main source of seeds in the SSB. Therefore, thoroughly eradicating GR plants for several years before the seeds can mature provides an effective control method in grasslands.