Action of phospholipase A2 on bilayers. Effect of fatty acid and lysophospholipid additives on the kinetic parameters

Action of pig pancreatic phospholipase A2 on the ternary codispersions of diacylphosphatidylcholine, 1-acyllysophosphatidylcholine and fatty acids is examined. The binding and kinetic constants are found to be the same under a variety of conditions. These parameters and the catalytic turnover number change with the phase-transition temperature of the ternary codispersions, and optimal binding, kinetic and catalytic constants are seen in the phase-transition range where an equilibrium exists between laterally separated phases. The effect of changing the structure of any of the three components is also via a change in the phase-transition temperature of their ternary codispersions. These observations suggest that the binding of pig pancreatic phospholipase A2 to the defect sites on the substrate interface determines the substrate concentration dependence of the initial rate of hydrolysis, and the catalytic turnover by the bound enzyme also depends upon the phase state of the bilayer. An additive-induced stabilization of the defects in the substrate bilayer is postulated to account for the enhanced binding of the enzyme to the bilayer.     

Fluorescence quenching studies of bovine growth hormone in several conformational states

The use of steady-state fluorescence quenching methods is reported as a probe of the accessibility of the single fluorescent tryptophan residue of bovine growth hormone (bGH, bovine somatotropin, bSt) in four solution-state conformations. Different bGH conformations were prepared by using previous knowledge of the multi-state nature of the equilibrium unfolding pathway for bGH: alterations in denaturant and protein concentration yielded different bGH conformations (native, monomeric intermediate, associated intermediate and unfolded). Because the intramolecular fluorescence quenching which occurs in the native state is reduced when the protein unfolds to any of the other conformations, steady-state fluorescence intensity measurements can be used to monitor bGH unfolding as well as the formation of the associated intermediate. These steady-state intensity changes have been confirmed with fluorescence lifetime measurements for the different conformational states of bGH. Fluorescence quenching results were obtained using the quenchers iodide (ionic), acrylamide (polar) and trichloroethanol (non-polar). Analysis of the results for native-state bGH reveals that the tryptophan environment is slightly non-polar (in agreement with the emission maximum of 335 nm) and the tryptophan is more exposed to acrylamide than most native-state tryptophan residues which have been studied. The tryptophan is most accessible to all quenchers in the unfolded state, because no steric restrictions inhibit quencher interaction with the tryptophan residue. The iodide quenching results indicate that the associated intermediate tryptophan is not accessible to iodide, probably due to negative charges inhibiting iodide penetration. The associated intermediate tryptophan is less accessible to all three quenchers than the monomeric intermediate tryptophan, due to tight packing of molecules in the associated intermediate state.     

Fluorescence of tryptophan residues in firefly luciferases and enzyme--substrate complexes

Quenching of tryptophan fluorescence of Luciola mingrelica (single tryptophan residue, Trp-419) and Photinus pyralis (two tryptophan residues, Trp-417 and Trp-426) luciferases with different quenchers (I-, Cs+, acrylamide) was studied. The conserved Trp-417(419) residue was shown to be not accessible to charged particles, and positively and negatively charged amino acid residues are located in close vicinity to it. We found previously unreported effective energy transfer from this tryptophan to luciferin during the quenching of the tryptophan fluorescence. The distance between the luciferin molecule and Trp-417(419) was calculated: 11-15 and 12-17 A for P. pyralis and L. mingrelica luciferases, respectively. The role of the conserved Trp residue in the catalysis is discussed. ATP and AMP are also quenchers of the tryptophan fluorescence of the luciferases. In this case, an allosteric mechanism of the interaction of Trp-417(419) with an excess of ATP (AMP) is proposed.     

Dehydration of the lipid-protein microinterface on binding of phospholipase A2 to lipid bilayers

A novel method is described to demonstrate inaccessibility to the bulk aqueous phase of the microinterface between pig pancreatic phospholipase A₂ and lipid bilayers to which this protein is bound. The method is based on the fact that the fluorescence emission quantum yields of the tryptophan residue of the protein and of a 5-dimethylaminonaphthalene-1-sulfonyl (dansyl) chromophore attached to a lipid are lower in water as compared to that in deuterated water. The fluorescence emission quantum yield of these chromophores is measured in water and in deuterated water under conditions where the protein is either bound or not bound to the surface of a lipid bilayer containing the dansyl chromophore. Under conditions where the protein is tightly bound to the surface of the bilayer, desolvation of both fluorophores abolishes the observed effect of deuterated water. The tryptophan residue in the bound phospholipase A₂ also becomes inaccessible to fluorescence quenching by acrylamide or succinimide. Desolvation of the microinterface is observed only under conditions that are significant for the catalytic action of phospholipase A₂ in the scooting mode and not in the hopping mode. Also, under similar conditions, binding of pro-phospholipase A₂ to anionic vesicles does not cause dehydration of the microinterface. The mechanistic significance of these observations for lipid-protein interactions, in general, and for interfacial catalysis and interfacial activation, in particular, is discussed.     

Fluorescence quenching of dimeric and monomeric forms of yeast hexokinase (PII): effect of substrate binding steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence studies

Fluorescence quenching studies on the PII isoenzyme of yeast hexokinase have been performed using charged as well as polar uncharged quenchers. In both 'open' (i.e. in the absence of glucose) and 'closed' (i.e. in the presence of glucose) forms of the enzyme, bimolecular quenching rate constant (kq) for acrylamide is significantly larger than that of KI, indicating that all the tryptophans are not fully exposed to the solvent. Overall accessibility of tryptophans towards KI was greater in the presence of glucose than in the absence of glucose. At high ionic strength, the value of bimolecular quenching rate constant (kq) for KI did not change suggesting that the average environment of the accessible tryptophan residue(s) is almost neutral. Quenching by KI is dynamic in nature. Accessibility of tryptophans towards acrylamide at concentration > or = 0.2 M was more in the 'open' form of the enzyme than that observed in the 'closed' form whereas at concentration < or = 0.2 M no significant difference in the extent of quenching was observed. It is reasonable to conclude that glucose induced conformational change leads some tryptophan residue(s) to be more exposed and at the same time some tryptophan residue(s) in the hydrophobic region become more buried. Dimeric and monomeric forms of the enzyme behave similarly towards the quenching by acrylamide. In the unfolded state, the accessibility of tryptophans was considerably higher for both the quenchers. Temperature dependent study and the fluorescence lifetime data indicate that the mechanism of quenching by acrylamide is primarily dynamic in nature.     

Activation of phospholipase A2 by freshly added lysophospholipids

Reaction progress curves for the hydrolysis of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine by pig pancreatic phospholipase A₂ exhibits a latency phase. Addition of 1-palmitoyllysophosphatidylcholine to the preformed vesicles reduces the latency phase and enhances the binding of phospholipase A₂ to the vesicles. In contrast, the binary codispersions prepared from diacylphospholipids premixed with lysophosphatidylcholine do not exhibit such enhanced susceptibility to the phospholipase. This effect appears to be due to organizational defects created by asymmetrical incorporation of lysophospholipid molecules into the outer monolayer of the vesicles, and the action of phospholipase is not observed when the additive is equilibrated in both the monolayers of the vesicles.     

Activation of phospholipase A(2) by long chain fatty acyl groups involves a novel unstable linkage

The acidic isoform of phospholipase A(2) from Naja mossambica mossambica was activated by treatment with a molar equivalent of oleoyl imidazolide. Modification of the protein was accompanied by 50% quenching of tryptophan fluorescence and a significant red shift. The (3)H(9,10) labeled oleoyl residue was co-eluted with the enzyme during gel filtration in the presence of 20% 1-propanol or excess albumin, both of which remove free oleic acid from the enzyme. In contrast, the adduct was labile as to electrophoresis on SDS-PAGE and acid or alkali urea PAGE. The formation of a covalently linked adduct was demonstrated by electrospray mass spectrometry in the presence of 2% formic acid. No such adduct was formed by the phospholipase A(2) isoform from Naja naja atra, which differs in sequence from the N. mossambica mossambica isoform by seven residues including 2 histidine residues and 1 lysine residue. We conclude that oleoyl imidazolide activates the N. mossambica mossambica enzyme by forming an acyl adduct which is unstable as to protein denaturation. The magnitude of tryptophan fluorescence quenching indicates that the site of acylation lies in the sequence WWHF.     

Interaction of phospholipase A2 and phospholipid bilayers

Binding of phospholipase A₂ from porcine pancreas and from Naja melanoleuca venom to vesicles of 1,2-di(tetradecyl)-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine (diether-PC₁₄) is studied in the presence and absence of 1-tetradecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and myristic acid. The bound enzyme coelutes with the vesicles during gel filtration through a nonequilibrated Sephadex G-100 column, modifies the phase transition behavior of bilayers, and exhibits an increase in fluorescence intensity accompanied by a blue shift. Using these criteria it is demonstrated that the snake-venom enzyme binds to bilayers of the diether-PC₁₄ alone. In contrast, the porcine enzyme binds only to ternary codispersions of dialkyl (or diacyl) phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine and fatty acid. Binding of the pig-pancreatic enzyme to vesicles of the diether-PC₁₄ could not be detected even after long incubation (up to 24 h) below, at, or above the phase-transition temperature, whereas the binding in the presence of products is almost instantaneous and observed over a wide temperature range. Thus incorporation of the products in substrate dispersions increases the binding affinity rather than increase the rate of binding. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that the pancreatic enzyme binds to defect sites at the phase boundaries in substrate bilayers induced by the products. The spectroscopically obtained hyperbolic binding curves can be adequately described by a single equilibrium by assuming that the enzyme interacts with discrete sites. The binding experiments are supported by kinetic studies.     

Action of phospholipase A2 on bilayers. Effect of inhibitors

Action of several solutes on the kinetics of phospholipase-A2-catalyzed hydrolysis of the ternary codispersions containing dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine + 1-palmitoyllysophosphatidylcholine + palmitic acid is examined. The kinetics of hydrolysis is interpreted in terms of the ability of the enzyme to bind to the substrate interface. The inhibitory effect of these solutes is correlated with their ability to modify fluorescence intensity of the bound enzyme, to modify the phase-transition profile, and to inhibit aggregation/fusion of the ternary codispersions. Based on these observations, it is suggested that the solutes like n-alkanols, ketamine, alphadolone, alphaxalone, flufenamic acid, tobramycin, mepacrine, EMD 21657 and U-10029A modulate the phase equilibria in the codispersions and thus noncompetitively inhibit the phospholipase action. Inhibition by feverfew extract (Tanacetum parthemium) is also by a similar mechanism. Lipid-soluble drugs as indomethacin had little effect on the kinetics of hydrolysis. All these inhibitors decrease the total extent of hydrolysis of the available substrate. However, none of these inhibitors have any effect on the hydrolysis of monomeric substrate or on the inactivation of the phospholipase A2 by p-bromophenacylbromide. These observations suggest that all these inhibitors do not interact directly with the catalytic site of the free or the bound enzyme, and their effect is primarily on the enzyme-binding sites on the substrate vesicle, that is, by perturbation of lipid-protein interaction.     

Fluorescence spectroscopic studies on tryptophan at the saccharide-binding site of castor bean hemagglutinin

The environment of tryptophan in castor bean hemagglutinin (CBH) was analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy with regard to saccharide binding. Upon binding of specific saccharides, the fluorescence maximum of 333 nm of CBH shifted to a wavelength 2 nm shorter, owing to the change in the environment of tryptophan at the saccharide-binding site. By analyzing the change in the fluorescence intensity at 320 nm as a function of concentration of saccharides, the association constants for binding of saccharides to CBH were determined. The results suggest that the saccharide-binding site on each B-chain is actually composed of a subsite with which the saccharide residue linked to galactopyranoside at the non-reducing end can interact, and another site which recognizes the galactopyranoside moiety. Quenching data indicated that five out of 22 tryptophans in CBH are surface-localized and are available for quenching with both KI and acrylamide, and three other tryptophans are buried and are available only to acrylamide. Binding of raffinose to CBH decreased by 2 the number of tryptophan residues accessible to quenchers in the CBH molecule. We speculate that raffinose binds to CBH in such a manner as to shield the tryptophan located at the subsite from quenching by KI and acrylamide. The results also suggest that the tryptophan residue at the saccharide-binding site on each B-chain is localized near the surface, and present in the positively charged environment.     

Assignment of the heterogeneous static and time-resolved tryptophan fluorescence of 3-phosphoglycerate kinase

The heterogeneous fluorescence of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase, a hinge-bending enzyme with two tryptophan residues, has been resolved into three emission components using steady-state and time-resolved studies of the fluorescence quenching by acrylamide, iodide and caesium ions at different emission wavelengths. The buried Trp-333 has a blue-shifted heterogeneous emission spectrum characterised by three fluorescence lifetimes, and is inaccessible to quenchers. The surface Trp-308 also has a heterogeneous emission with multiple lifetimes. The emission of Trp-308 can be separated into a blue-shifted emission accessible to acrylamide and caesium only, and a red-shifted emission accessible to all three quenchers.     

Molecular topography of the Ca2+ — ATPase of sarcoplasmic reticulum

Summary The Ca²⁺ binding site region of the Ca²⁺ — ATPase of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum was labeled with several fluorescent analogs of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. As has been shown by Chadwick and Thomas [1, 2], in the absence of Ca²⁺ in the medium, labeling with the naphthyl carbodiimide results in the inhibition of enzyme activity. Further, Ca²⁺ occupancy of the high affinity sites of the enzyme protects against incorporation into the site(s). The fluorescent carbodiimide has been used to determine the depth of the site of label incorporation relative to the aqueous-bilayer interfaces by quenching studies using spin-labeled fatty acid derivatives. The series of quenchers used have their spin-label moiety located at different positions along the fatty acid chain. It was found that after suitable correction for differences in partitioning of the various derivatives, the order of quenching efficiency was 16 - > 12- > 10- > 7- > 5-NS, indicating that the naphthyl moiety is near the center of the bilayer. In contrast, quenching with the aqueous-restricted I^– indicated that the label is accessible from the external milieu, likewise for a presumed aqueous quencher, acrylamide. The aqueous quenchers accessibilities were altered upon Ca²⁺ binding to the ATPase. Quenching of the intrinsic fluorescence with the x-NS derivatives indicates that the ATPase tryptophan residues are primarily localized at the aqueous-membrane interfaces, with the order of quenching being 5- > 7- > 10- > 12- > 16-NS. The trp residue(s) which changes its fluorescence upon Ca²⁺ binding is shown to be near the membrane surface.     

The interaction of Abrus precatorius agglutinin with saccharides as analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy

The binding of saccharides to Abrus precatorius agglutinin (APA) was analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy. Upon binding of specific saccharides, the fluorescence emission maximum of APA (338 nm) shifted to shorter wavelength by 5 nm, owing to the change in the environment of tryptophan. By analyzing the change in the fluorescence intensity at 338 nm as a function of concentration of saccharides, the association constants for binding of saccharides to APA were determined. The results suggest that in the saccharide binding site on each B-chain of APA, there may be a site which interacts with the saccharide residue linked to galactopyranoside at the non-reducing end, in addition to the site which recognizes the galactopyranosyl residue. Fluorescence quenching data indicate that 8 out of 24 tryptophans in APA are located at or near the surface of the protein molecule and are available for quenching with both KI and acrylamide, and 10 tryptophans are involved in the environment to which acrylamide has access but KI does not. Binding of lactose to APA reduced by 4 the number of tryptophan residues accessible to quenchers. Based on the results, it is suggested that the tryptophan residues at the saccharide binding site on each B-chain of APA are present on the surface of the APA molecule, and they are shielded from quenching by KI and acrylamide upon binding with specific saccharides.     

Fluorescence quenching of human orosomucoid. Accessibility to drugs and small quenching agents.

The fluorescence behaviour of human orosomucoid was investigated. The intrinsic fluorescence was more accessible to acrylamide than to the slightly larger succinimide, indicating limited accessibility to part of the tryptophan population. Although I- showed almost no quenching, that of Cs+ was enhanced, and suggested a region of negative charge proximal to an emitting tryptophan residue. Removal of more than 90% of sialic acid from the glycan chains led to no change in the Cs+, I-, succinimide or acrylamide quenching, indicating that the negatively charged region originates with the protein core. Quenching as a function of pH and temperature supported this view. The binding of chlorpromazine monitored by fluorescence quenching, in the presence and in the absence of the small quenching probes (above), led to a model of its binding domain on orosomucoid that includes two tryptophan residues relatively shielded from the bulk solvent, with the third tryptophan residue being on the periphery of the domain, or affected allotopically and near the negatively charged field.     

Fluorescence quenching of Trp-314 of liver alcohol dehydrogenase by oxygen

The quenching of the fluorescence of liver alcohol dehydrogenase (LADH) by molecular oxygen has been studied by both fluorescence lifetime and intensity measurements. This was done in the presence of 1 M acrylamide which selectively quenches the fluorescence of the surface tryptophan residue, Trp-15, thus allowing us to focus on the quenching of the deeply buried tryptophan, Trp-314, by molecular oxygen. Such studies yielded a Stern-Volmer plot of F0/F with a greater slope than the corresponding tau o/tau plot. This indicates that both dynamic and static quenching of Trp-314 occurs. The temperature dependence of the dynamic quenching of LADH by oxygen was also studied at three temperatures, from which we determined the activation enthalpy for the quenching of Trp-314 to be about 10 kcal/mol. The oxygen quenching of a ternary complex of LADH, NAD+ and trifluoroethanol was also studied. The rate constant for dynamic quenching of Trp-314 by oxygen was found to be approximately the same in the ternary complex as that in the unliganded enzyme.     

Fluorescence quenching in riboflavin-binding protein and its complex with riboflavin

Fluorescence quenching of tryptophan residues in egg-white riboflavin-binding protein by two typical quenchers (charged iodide and uncharged acrylamide) reveals acid-induced changes of protein conformation. At neutralpH, acrylamide flow in macromolecule, (i.e., the quenching effect) is decisive; tryptophan residue accessibility for iodide is small. At lowpH, some tryptophan residues are exposed to the protein surface and become more accessible to iodide. In contrast, acrylamide is less able to permeate this conformational state of RBP. Fluorescence of tryptophan residues in riboflavin-RBP complex and chemically N-bromosucinimide-modified RBP was quenched by iodide and acrylamide.     

The accessibility of the active site and conformation states of the beta 2 subunit of tryptophan synthase studied by fluorescence quenching

The rate of quenching of the fluorescence of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate in the active site of the beta 2 subunit of tryptophan synthase from Escherichia coli was measured to estimate the accessibility of the coenzyme to the small molecules iodide and acrylamide. The alpha subunit and the substrate L-serine substantially reduced the quenching rate. For iodide, the order of decreasing quenching was: Schiff's base of N alpha-acetyl-lysine with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate greater than holo beta 2 subunit greater than holo alpha 2 beta 2 complex approximately equal to holo beta 2 subunit + L-serine greater than holo alpha 2 beta 2 complex + L-serine. The coenzyme in the beta 2 subunit is apparently freely accessible to both iodide and acrylamide (kappa approximately equal to 2 X 10(9) M-1 s-1), but the alpha subunit and L-serine decrease the rate by factors of 2-5. Quenching of the fluorescence of the single tryptophan residue of the beta 2 subunit revealed that the apo and holo forms exist in different states, whereas the alpha subunit stabilizes a third conformation. As the alpha subunit binds to the beta 2 subunit, the tryptophan residue, which is within 2.2 nm of the active site of the beta 2 subunit, probably rotates with respect to the plane of the ring of the coenzyme, such that fluorescence energy transfer from tryptophan to pyridoxal phosphate is greatly reduced. The alpha subunit strongly protects the active-site ligand indole propanol phosphate from quenching with acrylamide, consistent with the active site being deep in a cleft in the protein. Iodide induces dissociation of the holo alpha 2 beta 2 complex [E. W. Miles & M. Moriguchi (1977) J. Biol. Chem. 252, 6594-6599]. The effect of iodide on the fluorescence properties of holo alpha 2 beta 2 complex allows us to estimate an upper limit for the dissociation constant for the alpha 2 beta 2 complex of 10(-8) M, in the absence of iodide.     

Fluorescence of human liver alanine aminopeptidase.

Fluorescence of human liver alanine aminopeptidase has been attributed to tryptophan fluorescence. The fluorescence maximum is at 330 nm, 20 nm lower than that for free tryptophan, suggesting that most of the enzyme tryptophans are in a nonpolar environment and are shielded from solvent. Quenching of enzyme fluorescence by iodide, pyridine, and N-methyl nicotinamide also demonstrates that enzyme tryptophan residues are largely buried and inaccessible to solvent. Those accessible are in negatively charged environments. 8-(1'-dimethylaminonaphthalene-5'-sulfonylamido-octanoic acid (8-DNS-octanoic acid) and epsilon-DNS-L-Lys inhibit aminopeptidase. One molecule of inhibitor when bound to the enzyme quenched 57% and 63% of enzyme fluorescence, respectively. Such efficient quenching may indicate a degree of segregation of tryptophan toward the active center.     

Fluorescence studies of the secondary structure and orientation of a model ion channel peptide in phospholipid vesicles.

A 21-residue peptide of the sequence (LSSLLSL)3 forms ion channels when incorporated into planar lipid bilayer membranes of diphytanoylphosphatidylcholine (diPhy-PC). The frequency of channel openings increases with the applied voltage gradient. We investigated the molecular and structural mechanisms underlying this voltage dependence. A series of seven peptides, each containing a tryptophan substituted for a single residue in the middle heptad, was synthesized, purified, and incorporated into small, unilamellar, diPhy-PC vesicles. We measured circular dichroism, maximum fluorescence emission wave-lengths, and fluorescence quenching by both aqueous and lipid hydrocarbon-associated quenchers. Circular dichroism spectra and the observed sequence periodicity of all fluorescence and fluorescence quenching data are consistent with an alpha-helical peptide secondary structure. Energy transfer quenching measurements using N-terminally labeled (LSSLLSL)3 co-incorporated at lipid/peptide ratios greater than 100 into vesicles with one of the Trp-substituted peptides showed that the vesicle-associated peptide, in the absence of a voltage gradient across the bilayer, exists as an equilibrium mixture of monomers and dimers. Static fluorescence quenching measurements using different lipid-bound quenchers indicate that the helical axis of a representative lipid-associated peptide is, on average, oriented parallel to the surface of the membrane and located a few angstroms below the polar head group/hydrocarbon boundary. This surface orientation for the peptide is confirmed by the complementary sequence periodicity observed for Trp fluorescence emission wavelength shifts and collisional quenching by aqueous CsCl.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)