SMG1-UPF1-eRF1-eRF3复合体参与贾第虫无义介导的mRNA降解激活

无义介导的mRNA降解（NMD）是一种重要的真核生物mRNA质量监控途径。NMD可识别并降解含有提前终止密码子（PTC）的异常mRNA（PTC-mRNA）。但NMD途径对PTC-mRNA的识别和降解机制尚无阐明。蓝氏贾第虫（Giardia lamblia）是一种寄生性的原生动物,进化上处于真核生物基部,对其NMD途径的研究有利于了解NMD途径的机制与进化。本研究通过双分子荧光互补实验、酵母双杂交实验和体外pull-down实验,分析了贾第虫的UPF1 (GlUPF1)、SMG1 (GlSMG1)和肽链释放因子（GleRF1、GleRF3）之间的相互作用关系。结果表明,贾第虫的肽链释放因子都能够与GlUPF1发生相互作用,且GlUPF1的CH结构域与GleRF3能够形成较稳定的复合体,而GlSMG1的激酶结构域PIKK能与UPF1的C端和N端结构域相互作用。进一步研究证实,GlSMG1的PIKK结构域能使GlUPF1两种截短体GlUPF1（1~500 aa）和GlUPF1（501~1 304 aa）发生磷酸化修饰,说明GlUPF1 的N端和C端均有GlSMG1的磷酸化位点。进一步分析证实,T111是GlUPF1上的1个磷酸化位点。我们的研究结果表明,贾第虫NMD途径起始阶段,首先在mRNA的PTC处的核糖体上形成SMG1-UPF1-eRF1-eRF3(SURF)复合体,并且GlSMG1磷酸化修饰GlUPF1,由此激活NMD途径,可能招募XRN1和SKI7d等酶参与无义mRNA的降解。     

蓝氏贾第虫组蛋白的初步研究

本文初步比较分析了贾第虫组蛋白的存在及其基本组成。通过甲醇固定,两次０．３ｍｏｌ／ＬＨＣｌ抽提及丙酮沉淀,提取贾第虫酸溶性蛋白,利用亲和层析制取总ＤＮＡ结合蛋白,经酸性尿素系统及ＳＤＳ系统电泳分析表明,贾第虫已存在５种组蛋白,其在两种不同性质电泳系统中的电泳行为与相应的小牛胸腺组蛋白有近似的对应关系。说明贾第虫的组蛋白已发生了分化,并已初步形成了性质不同的几个组份,从而在一定程度上支持核小体组蛋白在真核生物的原核祖先阶段就已产生了分化的假说。     

蓝氏贾第虫核小体的初步研究

最原始的真核生物蓝氏贾第虫虽已有五种组蛋白,但以微球菌核酸酶水解却得不到规则的DNA片段。鉴于贾第虫的特殊进化地位,探讨其是否具有核小体结构,对于研究核小体的起源和进化具有重要的意义。采用改进的染色质铺展技术制备核小体并进行透射电镜观察。结果表明蓝氏贾第虫已有了直径约l0nm的核小体结构。作者认为核小体的形成可追溯到真核生物形成的初期甚至更早,核小体的完善则在真核生物形成之后。     

蓝氏贾第虫核被膜缺口的电镜观察

双滴虫类是迄今所知的现存最原始的真核生物类群。以蓝氏贾第虫作为双滴虫类的代表,对其细胞核进行了电镜观察。除了未见有核仁外,还发现其核被膜的横切面上存在有缺口。在缺口的边缘处,核内膜与核外膜是相互连接着的,表明并非切片时所造成的假象。核被膜缺口处常有一核纤层样的薄层分隔核质与细胞质。用高锰酸钾固定细胞以求只保存膜结构时,核被膜缺口仍然可见,上述的薄层即未见到。核被膜缺口的发现证实了李靖炎（1979）的核被膜起源假说所作出的推断。     

源真核生物蓝氏贾第虫核分裂的初步观察

贾第虫属于源真核生物（Ａｒｃｈｅｚｏａ）中的双滴虫门,是目前所知的最低等的真核生物。本工作首次对蓝氏贾第虫（Ｇｉａｒｄｌｉａｌａｍｂｌａ）的核分裂作了初步的电镜观察,未能在分裂着的核中见到纺锤体或纺锤体微管。以０．１—２０μｇ／ｍｌ浓度的秋水仙素作实验,其核分裂也不受阻抑。以抗微管蛋白的多抗作免疫荧光检查,也未见分裂着的核中有微管蛋白。这似乎意味着其核分裂方式乃是前有丝分裂性质的。对此进行了讨论。     

蓝氏贾第虫核纤层蛋白基因的初步研究

贾第虫一度被认为是迄今已知的最原始的真核细胞,但近来争议日盛。利用PCR和测序等技术,对蓝氏贾第虫(Giardia lamblia)的核纤层蛋白(lamin)基因进行了研究。结果表明：蓝氏贾第虫基因组中存在一个编码具有明显lamin特征的基因序列。如该基因序列的3’一端具有编码与核内膜亲和的特征性模体(motif)CaaX的序列;具有B型lamin基因所特有的高度保守的27bp片段,该片段编码高度保守的位于a螺旋杆状区的9氨基酸片段等。同时,这些序列特征又与多细胞的后生动物存在一定差异。这些事实说明在贾第虫中已经进化产生了典型真核细胞的B型lamin(基因)或至少是类似B型的lamin(基因),该生物的进化地位可能并非过去所认为的那么原始。     

蓝氏贾第虫核被膜缺口的电镜观寨

双滴虫类是迄今所知的现存最原始的真核生物类群。以蓝氏贾第虫作为双滴虫类的代表,对其细胞核进行了电镜观察。除了未见有核仁外,还发现其核被膜的横切面上存在有缺口。在缺口的边缘处,核内膜与校外膜是相互连接着的,表明并非切片时所造成的假象。核被膜缺口处常有一核纤层样的薄层分隔核质与细胞质。用高锰酸钾固定细胞以求只保存膜结构时,核被膜缺口仍然可见,上述的薄层即未见到。核被膜缺口的发现证实了李靖炎（１９７９）的核被膜起源假说所作出的推断。     

无核仁原生动物蓝氏贾第虫rDNA的分布

过去的工作已表明,源真核生物（Archezoa)中的双滴虫类极其原始,核中尚无核仁发生,以蓝氏贾第虫（Giardia lamblia)作为双滴虫类的代表,用高度特异的核仁组织区银染法（改良的Ag-I法,李靖炎,1985）在电镜下检视其rDNA在核中的分布。结果发现,代表rDNA之所在的银粒并不集中形成任何类似核仁组织区或核仁纤维区的结构;在作为对照的小眼虫（Euglena gracilis)体内,银粒则完全集中在核仁纤维区中,因此,作者以为贾第虫rDNA的这种分布代表着核仁组织区进化形成以前的一种原始状态。     

真核细胞中无义介导的mRNA降解

无义介导的mRNA降解(NMD)作为一种有效的细胞监控机制,主要监测细胞转录产物的提前终止密码子(PTC),并使得含有PTC的mRNA被迅速降解,从而防止其被翻译成为缺陷性的蛋白质.尽管NMD具有一定的保守性,但在酵母、哺乳动物以及后来的果蝇细胞中都发现有所不同.目前对于NMD的研究已进入了结构领域并发现它与端粒调控和RNAi等机制相互关联.     

PTC下游翻译的重新起始导致NMD途径的逃逸

无义突变介导的mRNA降解（nonsense mediated mRNA decay, NMD）途径是真核生物体内一种重要的mRNA监督质控机制, 它降解含有由无义突变、错误剪接、移码突变等产生的提前终止翻译密码子（premature translation termination codon, PTC）的mRNA, 从而防止这种mRNA翻译产生的截短型蛋白质对机体造成的伤害. 研究发现, 一些含有PTC的mRNA发生了NMD途径逃逸, 但具体机制仍不清楚.本研究将成视网膜细胞瘤基因1 (retinoblastoma gene 1, RB1)作为NMD途径的靶基因, 构建mini-RB1基因,包括外显子1～14(cDNA)、内含子14 外显子15 内含子15和外显子16～27(cDNA) 的三部分序列, 将其构建到真核表达载体pcDNA 3.1(-)中.根据人类基因组突变数据库选择3个突变位点W99X、G310X和R467X, 构建相应无义突变体.分别将mini RB1基因野生型和无义突变体转入HeLa细胞进行表达.用qRT-PCR检测发现, W99X无义突变体与野生型相比mRNA的水平无显著差异.为了进一步证实mini- RB1（W99X）发生了NMD逃逸, 利用NMD途径抑制剂放线菌酮和转录抑制剂放线菌素D, 分别处理转入野生型的mini RB1基因及其无义突变体mini-RB1（W99X）的哺乳动物细胞, 发现mini-RB1基因无义突变体的mRNA水平与野生型无明显差异, 说明含有W99X无义突变的mini-RB1基因的mRNA发生了NMD逃逸.Western印迹检测mini-RB1基因的蛋白质表达发现, 在无义突变位点W99X下游重新起始了蛋白质的翻译, 因此,PTC下游蛋白质翻译的重新起始可能是导致无义mRNA逃逸NMD途径监控的主要原因.     

NMD作用的顺式调控元件

真核生物利用无义介导的mRNA降解(nonsense-mediated mRNA decay,NMD),对含有提前终止密码子(premature termination codons,PTC)的异常转录产物进行快速清除,防止毒害性截短蛋白(truncatedproteins)的产生,是真核生物重要的mRNA监视机制。NMD作用的启动与多种顺式调控元件有关,它们包括：提前终止密码子的标识;PTC下游特定位置的序列元件,在酵母细胞称为DSE(downstream sequence element,DSE),在哺乳动物细胞主要为内含子剪接依赖性序列元件(exon-exon junction,EEJ);稳定作用元件(stabilizer elements,STE)对NMD作用的阻抑调节;以及其他与NMD作用相关的序列,如poly(A)延长、5’-UTR的uORF(upstream open reading frame,uORF)和程序化核糖体移码(programmed-1 ribosomal frameshift,-1PRF)信号序列等。NMD途径中的这些顺式调控元件可能是分子遗传调控的关键靶点。     

Proximity of the poly(A)-binding protein to a premature termination codon inhibits mammalian nonsense-mediated mRNA decay

mRNA surveillance pathways selectively clear defective mRNAs from the cell. As such, these pathways serve as important modifiers of genetic disorders. Nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), the most intensively studied surveillance pathway, recognizes mRNAs with premature termination codons (PTCs). In mammalian systems the location of a PTC more than 50 nucleotides 5' to the terminal exon-exon junction is a critical determinant of NMD. However, mRNAs with nonsense codons that fulfill this requirement but are located very early in the open reading frame can effectively evade NMD. The unexpected resistance of such mRNAs with AUG-proximal PTCs to accelerated decay suggests that important determinants of NMD remain to be identified. Here, we report that an NMD-sensitive mRNA can be stabilized by artificially tethering the cytoplasmic poly(A) binding protein 1, PABPC1, at a PTC-proximal position. Remarkably, the data further suggest that NMD of an mRNA with an AUG-proximal PTC can also be repressed by PABPC1, which might be brought into proximity with the PTC during cap-dependent translation and 43S scanning. These results reveal a novel parameter of NMD in mammalian cells that can account for the stability of mRNAs with AUG-proximal PTCs. These findings serve to expand current mechanistic models of NMD and mRNA translation.     

Upf1 potentially serves as a RING-related E3 ubiquitin ligase via its association with Upf3 in yeast

Three Upf proteins are essential to the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway. Although these proteins assemble on polysomes for recognition of aberrant mRNAs containing premature termination codons, the significance of this assembly remains to be elucidated. The Cys- and His-rich repeated N terminus (CH domain) of Upf1 has been implicated in its binding to Upf2. Here, we show that CH domain also plays a RING-related role for Upf1 to exhibit E3 ubiquitin ligase activity in yeast. Despite the sequence divergence from typical E3-RING fingers, the CH domain of yeast Upf1 specifically and directly interacted with the yeast E2 Ubc3. Interestingly, Upf1 served as a substrate for the in vitro self-ubiquitination, and the modification required its association with Upf3 rather than Upf2. Substitution of the coordinated Cys and His residues in the CH domain impaired not only self-ubiquitination of Upf1 but also rapid decay of aberrant mRNAs. These results suggest that Upf1 may serve as an E3 ubiquitin ligase upon its association with Upf3 and play an important role in signaling to the NMD pathway.     

The Shuttling Protein Npl3 Promotes Translation Termination Accuracy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins are multifunctional proteins that bind to newly synthesized mRNAs in the nucleus and participate in many subsequent steps of gene expression. A well-studied Saccharomyces cerevisiae heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein that has several nuclear functions is Npl3p. Here, we provide evidence that Npl3p also has a cytoplasmic role: it functions in translation termination fidelity. Yeast harboring the npl3-95 mutant allele have an impaired ability to translate lacZ, enhanced sensitivity to cycloheximide and paromomycin, and increased ability to read through translation termination codons. Most of these defects are enhanced in yeast that also lack Upf1p, an RNA surveillance factor crucial for translation termination. We show that the npl3-95 mutant allele encodes a form of Npl3p that is part of high molecular-weight complexes that cofractionate with the poly(A)-binding protein Pab1p. Together, these results lead us to propose a model in which Npl3p engenders translational fidelity by promoting the remodeling of mRNPs during translation termination.     

Sensitive and Rapid Detection of Giardia lamblia Infection in Pet Dogs using Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification

Giardia lamblia is recognized as one of the most prevalent parasites in dogs. The present study aimed to establish a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for rapid and specific detection of G. lamblia from dogs. The fecal samples were collected and prepared for microscopic analysis, and then the genomic DNA was extracted directly from purified cysts. The concentration of DNA samples of G. lamblia were diluted by 10-fold serially ranging from 10^-1 to 10^-5 ng/µl for LAMP and PCR assays. The LAMP assay allows the amplification to be finished within 60 min under isothermal conditions of 63℃ by employing 6 oligonucleotide primers designed based on G. lamblia elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1α) gene sequence. Our tests showed that the specific amplification products were obtained only with G. lamblia, while no amplification products were detected with DNA of other related protozoans. Sensitivity evaluation indicated that the LAMP assay was sensitive 10 times more than PCR. It is concluded that LAMP is a rapid, highly sensitive and specific DNA amplification technique for detection of G. lamblia, which has implications for effective control and prevention of giardiasis.     

Mechanism of escape from nonsense-mediated mRNA decay of human beta-globin transcripts with nonsense mutations in the first exon

The degradation of nonsense-mutated β-globin mRNA by nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) limits the synthesis of C-terminally truncated dominant negative β-globin chains and thus protects the majority of heterozygotes from symptomatic β-thalassemia. β-globin mRNAs with nonsense mutations in the first exon are known to bypass NMD, although current mechanistic models predict that such mutations should activate NMD. A systematic analysis of this enigma reveals that (1) β-globin exon 1 is bisected by a sharp border that separates NMD-activating from NMD-bypassing nonsense mutations and (2) the ability to bypass NMD depends on the ability to reinitiate translation at a downstream start codon. The data presented here thus reconcile the current mechanistic understanding of NMD with the observed failure of a class of nonsense mutations to activate this important mRNA quality-control pathway. Furthermore, our data uncover a reason why the position of a nonsense mutation alone does not suffice to predict the fate of the affected mRNA and its effect on protein expression.     

A novel mutation in the myeloperoxidase gene in a Chinese female with complete myeloperoxidase deficiency: The role of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is an important enzyme in innate immunity. Here, we describe the first identified Chinese individual with complete MPO deficiency. The proband was ascertained through routine automated complete blood analysis. Analysis of MPO function and immunogenicity revealed that MPO levels in neutrophils were significantly decreased. Mutational analysis revealed a novel premature termination codon p.(Trp602*) in exon 11 of the MPO gene, which was inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. We demonstrated that nonsense-mediated mRNA decay is involved in the molecular pathology of MPO deficiency in this case. The study of MPO deficiency can be helpful in understanding the function and biosynthesis mechanisms of MPO.