Crystal structure of human cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase reveals a new GTP-binding site

We report crystal structures of the human enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) with and without bound substrates. These structures are the first to be determined for a GTP-dependent PEPCK, and provide the first view of a novel GTP-binding site unique to the GTP-dependent PEPCK family. Three phenylalanine residues form the walls of the guanine-binding pocket on the enzyme's surface and, most surprisingly, one of the phenylalanine side-chains contributes to the enzyme's specificity for GTP. PEPCK catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the metabolic pathway that produces glucose from lactate and other precursors derived from the citric acid cycle. Because the gluconeogenic pathway contributes to the fasting hyperglycemia of type II diabetes, inhibitors of PEPCK may be useful in the treatment of diabetes.     

Studies of regulatory metabolism in Moniezia expansa: the role of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase.

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) from M. expansa has been partially purified and its behaviour in a range of different assay conditions has been determined. Different PEPCK's were found in the cytosol and mitochondria. Some kinetic parameters for each are presented. Both enzymes are activated by Mn²⁺; cytosolic PEPCK is also activated by Mg²⁺. The enzymes have pH optima in the range 6·4–7·0. They do not differ with respect to their apparent affinities for inosine and guanosine diphosphates, but the latter allows higher maximal activity. Little activity is observed with adenosine diphosphate. Adenosine and inosine triphosphates exert weak inhibitory effects on the Mn²⁺ activated enzymes; a much strongsr inhibition is exerted on the cytosolic enzyme when activated by Mg²⁺. A number of non-nucleotide compounds were tested for possible inhibitory effects with no success. The forward and back reactions catalyzed by PEPCK proceed at similar rates, suggesting that the enzyme may be readily raversible in vivo.     

Partial purification and characterization of stomatal phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Vicia faba

Stomatal phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPCase EC 4.1.1.31), extracted from abaxial epidermal peels of Vicia faba L. cv. Frühe Weiβkeimige, was partially purified by ammoniumsulfate precipitation, and molecular sieve (Sepharosc S-400) and ion exchange (DEAE-Sepharose) chromatography. The partially purified enzyme, essentially free of a PEPCase isoform existing in mesophyll and epidermal cells, had a specific activity of 300 nkat mg-¹ protein at 25°C. Western immunoblot analysis revealed that the stomatal enzyme had two bands (M_: of 110000 and 112000), crossreacting with PEPCase antibodies raised against PEPCase from Ka-lanchoe daigremontiana . The native molecular mass of the enzyme (467000) points to a tetrameric subunit structure. The temperature optimum was found to be 35°C; cold treatments of PEPCase before assaying were accompanied by inactivation. The energy of activation was calculated to 51 kJ mol-¹. The kinetic behaviour of the enzyme at fixed MgCl₂ concentrations is characterized by a pH optimum between pH 8.0–8.2 with or without 1 m M malate or 5 m M glucose-6-phosphate (Glc-6-P), but a combination of both effectors resulted in a shift of the optimum to pH 7.6. The enzyme showed a pH sensitive inhibition by 1 m M malate and an activation by Glc-6-P. At low pH (6–7), Glc-6-P was able to compensate for the malate induced inhibition of the enzyme. Malate and Glc-6-P both affected K_m(PEP), drastically and influenced V_max at pH 7, but not at pH 8.3. The inhibition constant of malate was determined to be 1.2 m M at pH 7. From the Dixon plot, a competitive inhibition of malate was assumed under defined assay conditions.     

A bioluminescent assay for the determination of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activity in nanogram-sized tissue samples

A highly specific and sensitive assay for the determination of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) in nanogram-sized tissue samples is described. This test system is based on the stoichiometric transformation of phosphoenolpyruvate into ATP. In a subsequent step ATP is quantified by bioluminescent techniques. The applicability of this assay system is shown by measurements in liver samples with normal and high PEPCK activity levels.     

血清学诊断中结核杆菌磷酸烯醇型丙酮酸羧激酶的应用

[目的]在原核系统中表达结核杆菌磷酸烯醇型丙酮酸羧激酶(phosphoenolpyruvate car-boxykinase PEPCK),并研究该蛋白在诊断结核病人血清抗体中的应用价值.[方法]应用基因重组技术表达重组蛋白结核杆菌磷酸烯醇型丙酮酸羧激酶,经亲和层析法纯化表达产物.用表达的重组蛋白免疫小鼠,研究其免疫学特性.间接酶联免疫吸附试验(Enzyme link immunosorbent assay,ELISA)检测结核病人血清中特异性IgG抗体,并与结核杆菌抗体胶体金法诊断试剂盒检测结果对比.[结果]试验表明转化入大肠杆菌中的重组质粒能够表达并纯化出相对分子量为72 kDa的重组蛋白;Western blot证实重组蛋白能够与小鼠抗BCG血清发生特异性反应;重组蛋白免疫小鼠后,小鼠血清中的抗体滴度可达1∶1280以上;重组蛋白用作ELISA包被抗原检测病人血清阳性率为17.3%(30/173),其中排菌病人的阳性率为32.5%(13/42),不排菌病人的阳性率为12.9%.该方法结果与结核杆菌抗体胶体金法诊断试剂盒的检测结果相比,敏感性为51.0%,特异性为96.7%.[结论]结核杆菌PEPCK具有较好的免疫原性和抗原性,有可能作为结核病血清学诊断的一组抗原之一.     

Kinetic and functional properties of human mitochondrial phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

The cytosolic form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK1) plays a regulatory role in gluconeogenesis and glyceroneogenesis. The role of the mitochondrial isoform (PCK2) remains unclear. We report the partial purification and kinetic and functional characterization of human PCK2. Kinetic properties of the enzyme are very similar to those of the cytosolic enzyme. PCK2 has an absolute requirement for Mn²⁺ ions for activity; Mg²⁺ ions reduce the K_m for Mn²⁺ by about 60 fold. Its specificity constant is 100 fold larger for oxaloacetate than for phosphoenolpyruvate suggesting that oxaloacetate phosphorylation is the favored reaction in vivo. The enzyme possesses weak pyruvate kinase-like activity (k_cat=2.7 s^?1). When overexpressed in HEK293T cells it enhances strongly glucose and lipid production showing that it can play, as the cytosolic isoenzyme, an active role in glyceroneogenesis and gluconeogenesis.     

Effect of sulphite on phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and malate formation in extracts of Zea mays

The effect of SO₃^2? on the activity of PEP-carboxylase and on subsequent malate formation has been studied in leaf extracts of Zea mays. PEP-carboxylase was assayed by incorporation of H¹⁴CO₃ - into oxaloacetate dinitrophenylhydrazone and by a spectrophotometric method. In contrast to ribulose diphosphate carboxylase, PEP-carboxylase was not inhibited by 10 mM SO₃^2? with respect to PEP. As was the case with ribulose diphosphate carboxylase, the activity of PEP-carboxylase was inhibited non-competitively with respect to Mg²⁺. However, the K_i value (84.5 mM) was found to be very high. With respect to HCO₃^?, like ribulose diphosphate carboxylase, PEP-carboxylase was inhibited competitively, but the K_i value (27 mM SO₃^2?) increased by about the same factor (× 9) as the K_m, (0·5 mM HCO₃^?) is decreased. This indicates that the replacement of HCO₃^? by SO₃^2?, common to both enzymes, is facilitated by decreasing the affinity of the enzyme for HCO₃^?. At substrate saturating conditions malate formation by the combined action of PEP-carboxylase and endogenous NADH-dependent malate dehydrogenase in leaf extracts was not inhibited by 10 mM SO₃^2?. Although the malate dehydrogenase is inhibited at this SO₃^2? concentration to about 85%, malate formation is unaffected, as PEP-carboxylase is the rate limiting step its turnover rate being only about 8% of NADH-dependent malate dehydrogenase.     

The role of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase in neuronal steroidogenesis under acute inflammation

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) is a key gluconeogenic enzyme found in many tissues throughout the body including brain. In the present study, we have investigated the effect of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on PEPCK and its role in neuronal steroidogenesis. Adult female albino rats were administered LPS (5 mg/kg body weight) to induce acute inflammation. LPS administration resulted in a significant increase of PEPCK mRNA expression with concomitant increase in mRNA levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein and other steroidogenic enzymes including 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD) and aromatase in brain tissue. Further, the inhibition of PEPCK expression by glipizide significantly decreased the mRNA expression of steroidogenic proteins and concurrently increased the mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines under LPS administration. The results of this study suggest a novel finding that PEPCK may have an important role in neuronal steroidogenesis; which serves as an adaptive response under inflammation.     

Analysis of Escherichia coli anaplerotic metabolism and its regulation mechanisms from the metabolic responses to altered dilution rates and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase knockout

The gluconeogenic phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase is active in Escherichia coli during its growth on glucose. The present study investigated the influence of growth rates and PEP carboxykinase knockout on the anaplerotic fluxes in E. coli. The intracellular fluxes were determined using the complementary methods of flux ratio analysis and metabolic flux analysis based on [U-(13)C(6)]glucose labeling experiments and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of cellular amino acids and glycerol. Significant activity of PEP carboxykinase was identified in wild-type E. coli, and the ATP dissipation for the futile cycling via this reaction accounted for up to 8.2% of the total energy flux. Flux analysis of pck deletion mutant revealed that abolishment of PEP carboxykinase activity resulted in a remarkably reduced flux through the anaplerotic PEP carboxylase and the activation of the glyoxylate shunt, with 23% of isocitrate found being channeled in the glyoxylate shunt. The changes in intracellular metabolite concentrations and specific enzyme activities associated with different growth rates and pck deletion, were also determined. Combining the measurement data of in vivo fluxes, metabolite concentrations and enzyme activities, the in vivo regulations of PEP carboxykinase flux, PEP carboxylation, and glyoxylate shunt in E. coli are discussed.     

Affinity labeling of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase with 1, 5-I-AEDANS.

The concentrations of zinc thionein and cytosolic zinc in rat liver were examined in male rats five days after bilateral adrenalectomy. Zinc in metallothionein increased 10 fold, as compared with control animals. Cytosolic zinc increased 79% as compared with controls. 65% of this increase could be accounted for bound to metallothionein. Sham operated animals after five days showed a 4 fold increase in hepatic zinc thionein and a 23% increase in cytosolic zinc, 71% of this increase being bound to metallothionein. Adrenalectomized rats, maintained on daily injections of corticosterone (4mg/100g b.w.), exhibited the same levels of zinc thionein and cytosolic zinc as adrenalectomized rats receiving no treatment. Adrenalectomized rats, maintained on daily injections of aldosterone (5μg/100g b.w.), exhibited the same levels of zinc thionein as the sham operated rats, but the cytosolic zinc remained elevated at the level found in adrenalectomized rats receiving no treatment. These results indicate that there is adrenal involvement in the control of hepatic zinc and zinc thionein levels in the rat.     

Photosynthetic responses to temperature of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase type C4 species differing in cold sensitivity

Photosynthetic rates, the activities of key enzymes associated with the C₄ cycle and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBPCase), and the levels of metabolites involved in the C₄ cycle were compared between the two phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK) type C₄ species Spartina anglica, which is cold-tolerant, and Zoysia japonica, which is cold-sensitive, during exposure to low temperature. Plants of both species grown outside in summer were placed in a growth chamber at 27/20 °C day/night temperatures. After 1 week, plants were exposed to 20/17 °C for 1 week and then to 10/7 °C for 2 weeks. Photosynthetic rates in Z. japonica decreased progressively to about 25% during the chilling treatments. In contrast, S. anglica exhibited a 43% increase in photosynthetic rates after exposure to 20 °C for 1 week, which remained relatively constant thereafter. Consistent with these observations, most of the C₄ enzymes and RuBPCase in Z. japonica declined. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and PCK activities declined particularly drastically during the treatments. However, the activities of these enzymes in S. anglica showed either a slight increase or decrease upon a mild cold treatment, and remained relatively constant during further chilling treatments. There was a sharp decline in phosphoenolpyruvate in Z. japonica after exposure to 10 °C. On the other hand, metabolite levels in S. anglica were largely unaffected by the chilling treatments. These results suggest that the drastic declines of both PEPC and PCK activities may be important limiting factors responsible for cold sensitivity in C₄ photosynthesis of Z. japonica.     

Effects of sulfite on phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-dependent malate dehydrogenase in epidermal peels in two cultivars of pea

We have identified a differential response of stomatal conductance to sulfur dioxide in two cultivars of pea ( Pisum sativum L. cvs P715 and Nugget). The response to sulfite exposure of PEPC activities present in epidermal peels obtained from the two cultivars was qualitatively in agreement with the results obtained for stomatal conductance. With epidermal tissue isolated from the more sensitive cultivar, we have investigated the effect of light and sulfite on guard cell phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (E.E. 4.1.1.31.) and NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase (E.C. 1.1.1.82), two enzymes of the malate biosynthetic pathway. No difference was found between the substrate-saturated activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in epidermal tissue incubated in the light or in the dark under the same conditions. Substratesaturated NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase activity increased nearly 3-fold during a 60 min incubation in the light. Incubations of epidermal tissue in the light in the presence of sulfite resulted in a decrease in the activity of both enzymes. Our results suggest that the inhibition of these two enzymes of the malate biosynthetic pathway may be one cause of sulfur dioxide-mediated stomatal closure.     

Evaluation by site-directed mutagenesis of active site amino acid residues of Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase catalyzes the reversible formation of oxaloacetate and adenosine triphosphate from PEP, adenosine diphosphate, and carbon dioxide, and uses Mn²⁺ as the activating metal ion. The enzyme is a monomer and presents 68% identity with Escherichia coli PEP carboxykinase. Comparison with the crystalline structure of homologous E. coli PEP carboxykinase [Tari, L. W., Matte, A., Goldie, H., and Delbaere, L. T. J. (1997). Nature Struct. Biol. 4, 990–994] suggests that His225, Asp262, Asp263, and Thr249 are located in the active site of the protein, interacting with manganese ions. In this work, these residues were individually changed to Gln (His225) or Asn. The mutated enzymes present 3–6 orders of magnitude lower values of V _max/K _m, indicating high catalytic relevance for these residues. The His225Gln mutant showed increased K _m values for Mn²⁺ and PEP as compared with wild-type enzyme, suggesting a role of His²²⁵ in Mn²⁺ and PEP binding. From 1.5–1.6 Kcal/mol lower affinity for the 3(2)-O-(N-methylantraniloyl) derivative of adenosine diphosphate was observed for the His225Gln and Asp263Asn mutant A. succiniciproducens PEP carboxykinases, implying a role of His²²⁵ and Asp²⁶³ in nucleotide binding.     

Molecular cloning of cucumber phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and developmental regulation of gene expression

A cDNA library from RNA of senescing cucumber cotyledons was screened for sequences also expressed in cotyledons during post-germinative growth. One clone encodes ATP-dependent phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK; EC 4.1.1.49), an enzyme of the gluconeogenic pathway. The sequence of a fulllength cDNA predicts a polypeptide of 74397 Da which is 43%, 49% and 57% identical to bacterial, trypanosome and yeast enzymes, respectively. The cDNA was expressed in Escherichia coli and antibodies raised against the resultant protein. The antibody recognises a single polypeptide of ca. 74 kDa, in extracts of cotyledons, leaves and roots. The cucumber genome contains a single pck gene. In the seven-day period after seed imbibition, PCK mRNA and protein steady-state levels increase in amount in cotyledons, peaking at days 2 and 3 respectively, and then decrease. Both accumulate again to a low level in senescing cotyledons. This pattern of gene expression is similar to that of isocitrate lyase (ICL) and malate synthase (MS). When green cotyledons are detached from seedlings and incubated in the dark, ICL and MS mRNAs increase rapidly in amount but PCK mRNA does not. Therefore it seems unlikely that the glyoxylate cycle serves primarily a gluconeogenic role in starved (detached) cotyledons, in contrast to post-germinative and senescing cotyledons where PCK, ICL and MS are coordinately synthesised. While exogenous sucrose greatly represses expression of icl and ms genes in dark-incubated cotyledons, it has a smaller effect on the level of PCK mRNA.     

Control of gluconeogenesis by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase in cotyledons ofCucurbita pepo L.

3-Mercaptopicolinic acid, a non-competitive inhibitor of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (EC 4.1.1.19) was used to study the control of gluconeogenesis by this enzyme in germinating marrow (Cucurbita pepo) cotyledons. In vitro, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase was inhibited by 3-mercaptopicolinic acid, with aKi of 5.9 M. At 25°C the inhibitor caused an increase in the label incorporated from [2-¹⁴C]acetate into CO₂, and a decrease in the label incorporated into the insoluble and neutral fractions. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase had a flux control coefficient for gluconeogenesis (C _PEPCK ^J ) of between 0.7 and 1.0. 3-Mercaptopicolinic acid was a less effective inhibitor of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase at lower temperatures (Ki = 8.6 M at 17°C, 13.3 M at 10°C) and had similar effects on the metabolism of [2-¹⁴C]acetate by marrow cotyledons when the temperature was reduced to 17°C and 10°C. The control coefficient for this enzyme did not change with temperature, indicating that phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase exerts a high degree of control over gluconeogenesis at all temperatures examined.Abbreviations PEP Phosphoenolpyruvate - PEPCK PEP carboxykinase The authors thank Dr. Ian Woodrow (University of Melbourne, Australia) for helpful discussions. This work was supported by a grant from the Science and Engineering Research Council, U.K. (GR/F 50978).     

The chloroplastic 2-oxoglutarate/malate transporter has dual function as the malate valve and in carbon/nitrogen metabolism

Transport of dicarboxylates across the chloroplast envelope plays an important role in transferring carbon skeletons to the nitrogen assimilation pathway and exporting reducing equivalent to the cytosol to prevent photo-inhibition (the malate valve). It was previously shown that the Arabidopsis plastidic 2-oxoglutarate/malate transporter (AtpOMT1) and the general dicarboxylate transporter (AtpDCT1) play crucial roles at the interface between carbon and nitrogen metabolism. However, based on the in vitro transport properties of the recombinant transporters, it was hypothesized that AtpOMT1 might play a dual role, also functioning as an oxaloacetate/malate transporter, which is a crucial but currently unidentified component of the chloroplast malate valve. Here, we test this hypothesis using Arabidopsis T-DNA insertional mutants of AtpOMT1. Transport studies revealed a dramatically reduced rate of oxaloacetate uptake into chloroplasts isolated from the knockout plant. CO(2) -dependent O(2) evolution assays showed that cytosolic oxaloacetate is efficiently transported into chloroplasts mainly by AtpOMT1, and supported the absence of additional oxaloacetate transporters. These findings strongly indicate that the high-affinity oxaloacetate transporter in Arabidopsis chloroplasts is AtpOMT1. Further, the knockout plants showed enhanced photo-inhibition under high light due to greater accumulation of reducing equivalents in the stroma, indicating malfunction of the malate valve in the knockout plants. The knockout mutant showed a phenotype consistent with reductions in 2-oxoglutarate transport, glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase activity, subsequent amino acid biosynthesis and photorespiration. Our results demonstrate that AtpOMT1 acts bi-functionally as an oxaloacetate/malate transporter in the malate valve and as a 2-oxoglutarate/malate transporter mediating carbon/nitrogen metabolism.