转化生长因子β在细胞凋亡及抗凋亡中的作用机制

转化生物因子β（TGF-β）在生物发育,组织形成与更新、伤口的愈合、细胞增殖、迁移与免疫反应中起着重要的调节作用。TGF-β既能诱导某些类型细胞的凋亡反应,又能增强某些类型细胞的生存力,具有一定的抗细胞凋亡作用。TGF-β生物效应的这种显而易见的矛盾性质并不仅仅存在于细胞的生死和存活的调节过程中,还可见于TGF-β介导的其他细胞效应中。因此,TGF-β介导的广泛和对立的生物效应的机制成为人们关注和研究的焦点,最近几年人们已开始逐渐认识和了解对TGF-β诱导细胞凋亡和抗细胞凋亡的机制。在此,我们仅就某些研究进展作一简单的介绍。     

转化生长因子β及其生物学效应

转化生长因子β（ＴＧＦβ）属于一处多功能多肽家族,在免疫抑制、抗炎症反应、对增殖和细胞间质产生的调控、损伤修复等方面起重要作用。ＴＧＦβ表达和信号转导失常与多处疾病的发生有关。     

转化生长因子β在细胞凋亡抗调亡中的作用机制

转化生长因子β(TGF-β)在生物发育、组织形成与更新、伤口的愈合、细胞增殖、迁移与免疫反应中起着重要的调节作用.TGF-β既能诱导某些类型细胞的凋亡反应,又能增强某些类型细胞的生存力,具有一定的抗细胞凋亡作用.TGF-β生物效应的这种显而易见的矛盾性质并不仅仅存在于细胞的生死和存活的凋节过程中,还可见于TGF-β介导的其他细胞效应中.因此,TGF-β介导的广泛和对立的生物效应的机制成为人们关注和研究的焦点,最近几年人们已开始逐渐认识和了解对TGF-β诱导细胞凋亡和抗细胞凋亡的机制.在此,我们仅就某些研究进展作一简单的介绍.     

转化生长因子β受体的研究进展

转化生长因子β受体有３个亚型：Ⅰ型,Ⅱ型,Ⅲ型,其结构功能特点及在转导ＴＧＦ－β信号过程中的作用机制不同,细胞在受体水平的变化影响ＴＧＦ－β的功能。     

肺泡Ⅱ型细胞表皮生长因子和转化生长因子α、β1及其受体表达的研究

分离培养成年大鼠的肺泡Ⅱ型细胞,通过斑点杂交、原位杂交和免疫组织化学染色,研究肺泡Ⅱ型细胞内表皮生长因子（EGF）、转化生长因子α和β1（TGFα、TGFβ1）及其受体基因的表达。结果显示肺泡Ⅱ型细胞可表达EGF、TGFα和TGFβ1,也可表达相应的EGF受体（EGFR）、TGFβ受体Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型（TβRⅠ、TβRⅡ）。表明肺泡Ⅱ型细胞是合成和分泌EGF、TGFα和TGFβ1的细胞之一;细胞凭借其EGFR、TβR的存在,其增殖与分化可能受EGF、TGFα和TGFβ1的旁分泌和自分泌两种途径调控。     

肝细胞生长因子抑制糖基化终产物诱导人脐静脉内皮细胞的凋亡作用

目的探讨肝细胞生长因子(HGF)抑制糖基化终产物(AGEs)诱导人脐静脉内皮细胞凋亡的作用及其相关分子机制。方法体外培养ECV-304人脐静脉内皮细胞,采用噻唑蓝(MTT)法测定HGF对AGEs作用后ECV-304细胞生长抑制率的影响;通过Hoechst33258荧光染色观察细胞形态学改变、流式细胞术测定AnnexinV-FITC/PI双染标记的细胞凋亡率,检测HGF对AGEs诱导ECV-304细胞凋亡的影响;Western印迹法检测Bax、Bcl-2蛋白的表达。结果HGF能明显降低AGEs对ECV-304细胞生长的抑制作用;AGE诱导培养的ECV-304细胞出现明显的凋亡形态学改变,在一定浓度范围内,ECV-304细胞凋亡率与AGEs的浓度和作用时间呈依赖关系,加入HGF处理后可显著降低不同时间的内皮细胞凋亡率;HGF作用ECV-304细胞后Bcl-2蛋白表达明显升高,而Bax蛋白表达无明显变化。结论AGEs能诱导内皮细胞凋亡,而HGF能部分抑制AGEs诱导的内皮细胞凋亡,其作用机制可能与上调Bcl-2蛋白的表达水平有关。     

转化生长因子β的生物学特性、功能及其临床应用前景

转化生长因子β是一种高度多效性,多功能性的生长与分化因子,它广泛地调节机体的生长,发育,炎症,修复和免疫等许多生理和病理过程,具有重要的生物学功能和广阔的临床应用前景。     

肝细胞生长因子诱导CCL—64细胞迁移及其受TGF—β1的影响

目的：观察肝细胞生长因子（ＨＧＦ）诱导ＣＣＬ６４ 细胞发生迁移运动及转化生长因子β１（ＴＧＦβ１）对ＨＧＦ诱导的细胞迁移运动的影响。方法：细胞迁移检测。结果：ＨＧＦ不仅具有特异逆转ＴＧＦβ１ 抑制ＣＣＬ６４ 细胞增殖的活性,还具有诱导ＣＣＬ６４ 细胞发生迁移运动的效应。当ＴＧＦβ１ 浓度为５００ ｐｇ／ｍｌ 时,ｒｈＨＧＦ以剂量效应曲线方式诱导细胞迁移,而且低浓度的ＴＧＦβ１（＜１００ ｐｇ／ｍｌ）也可显著增强ｒｈＨＧＦ诱导的ＣＣＬ６４ 细胞迁移。结论：在一定的剂量范围内,ＨＧＦ和ＴＧＦβ１对ＣＣＬ６４ 细胞迁移运动具协同增强作用     

腺病毒介导转化生长因子β1 诱导结肠癌细胞凋亡的研究

目的:探讨腺病毒介导的转化生长因子β-1(TGF-β1)对结肠癌细胞凋亡的诱导作用。方法:结肠癌细胞系HCT116细胞培养后分实验组及对照组,实验组以腺病毒为载体将TGF-β1转染,逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)以及免疫组织化学检测其m RNA及蛋白的表达,MTT法检测细胞生长抑制率,流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡的情况。结果:实验组的TGF-β1 mRNA以及蛋白的表达明显增强;实验组细胞的吸光度波动较小,在低值区相对稳定,各时相点无明显变化,24 h的细胞增殖抑制率为50%,其后在70%-80%之间;对照组细胞吸光度显著升高,与实验组各时相点比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。实验组24 h、36 h、48 h、60 h、72 h的凋亡率分别为(7.55±0.03)%、(8.53±0.11)%、(13.47±0.23)%、(15.51±0.26)%、(16.59±0.26)%,与对照组细胞各时相点比较差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。结论:TGF-β1能够显著地抑制HCT 116细胞的增值及诱导其凋亡。     

大鼠肺纤维化血小板源性生长因子、血小板源性生长因子—受体、转化生长因子—β、转化生长因子—β受体的表达

采用免疫组织化学方法观察实验性大鼠肺纤维化肺组织内转化生长因子（TGF－β）及其受体（TGF－βR）和血小板源性生长因子（PDGF）及其受体（PDGF－R）表达的变化。发现：（1）实验早期（1－3天）,TGF－β主要由单核巨噬细胞为主的炎症细胞所产生;7天以后直至实验结束（28天）,TGF－β阳性细胞主要为增生的间质细胞,TGF－βR的变化与之同步。（2）实验1－7天,病灶内单核巨噬细胞细胞PDGF染色呈强阳性反应,少量间质细胞呈阳性反应;14天以后,病灶内PDGF阳性的单核巨噬细胞减少,阳性间质细胞亦减少。PDGF－R的变化与PDGF相似。结果提示PDGF的主要来源是巨噬细胞,在肺纤维化的早、中期发挥重要作用,而TGF－β主要由间质细胞自身产生,在肺纤维化的中、后期发挥重要作用,促细胞外基质合成,使肺纤维化进行性进展。     

Characterization and partial purification of human epithelial transforming growth factor

A polypeptide growth factor has been partially purified from medium conditioned by the human adrenocortical carcinoma cell line SW13. This factor, designated h-TGFe, stimulates anchorage-independent growth of the SW13 cells. Similar activity was observed in human milk, and in conditioned media from seven of 14 epithelial cell lines. The SW13-derived activity is stable to low pH and 8M urea but labile to dithiothreitol and 2% sodium dodecyl sulfate. Human TGFe does not bind to heparin and fails to stimulate growth of endothelial cells in monolayer culture. The apparent molecular weight of h-TGFe is 59k by size exclusion chromatography in the presence of 8M urea and the activity binds strongly to cation exchangers. The activity elutes at 15-30% acetonitrile from a C18 reverse-phase column and has been partially purified by using a four-step chromatographic procedure. TGFe appears to be a novel growth factor produced by many epithelial cells and tissues.     

Monoclonal antibodies recognizing transforming growth factor-beta. Bioactivity neutralization and transforming growth factor beta 2 affinity purification

Four mAb able to recognize transforming growth factor-beta 2 (TGF-beta)2 were obtained. One of these mAb, 1D11.16, was able to neutralize the biological activity of both TGF-beta 1 and beta 2 in vitro. This was demonstrated in an Il-1, PHA-dependent thymocyte mitogenic assay that is inhibitable by TGF-beta in a dose-dependent manner. All four mAb recognized the dimeric form of TGF-beta 2 in Western blots. The mAb were also found to immunoprecipitate [125I]-TGF-beta 2. mAb 3C7.14 coupled to Sepharose could efficiently immunoaffinity purify TGF-beta 2 from a complex mixture of proteins. Affinity constants were determined for the four mAb and they ranged from 3.4 x 10(8) to 1.6 x 10(7) L/mol.     

Signal transduction by members of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily

Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) superfamily members exert their diverse biological effects through their interaction with heteromeric receptor complexes of transmembrane serine/threonine kinases. Both components of the receptor complex, known as receptor I and receptor II are essential for signal transduction. The composition of these complexes can vary significantly due to the promiscuous nature of the ligands and the receptors, and this diversity of interactions can yield a variety of biological responses. Several receptor interacting proteins and potential mediators of signal transduction have now been identified. Recent advances, particularly in our understanding of the function of Mothers against dpp-related (MADR) proteins, are providing new insights into how the TGFβ superfamily signals its diverse biological activities.     

Synergistic action of fibroblast growth factor-2 and transforming growth factor-beta1 enhances bioprinted human neocartilage formation

Bioprinting as a promising but unexplored approach for cartilage tissue engineering has the advantages of high throughput, digital control, and highly accurate placement of cells and biomaterial scaffold to the targeted 3D locations with simultaneous polymerization. This study tested feasibility of using bioprinting for cartilage engineering and examined the influence of cell density, growth, and differentiation factors. Human articular chondrocytes were printed at various densities, stimulated transiently with growth factors and subsequently with chondrogenic factors. Samples were cultured for up to 4 weeks to evaluate cell proliferation and viability, mechanical properties, mass swelling ratio, water content, gene expression, ECM production, DNA content, and histology. Bioprinted samples treated with FGF-2/TGF-β1 had the best chondrogenic properties among all groups apparently due to synergistic stimulation of cell proliferation and chondrogenic phenotype. ECM production per chondrocyte in low cell density was much higher than that in high cell seeding density. This finding was also verified by mechanical testing and histology. In conclusion, cell seeding density that is feasible for bioprinting also appears optimal for human neocartilage formation when combined with appropriate growth and differentiation factors.     

An evolutionarily conserved enzyme degrades transforming growth factor- alpha as well as insulin

A single enzyme found in both Drosophila and mammalian cells is able to selectively bind and degrade transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha and insulin, but not EGF, at physiological concentrations. These growth factors are also able to inhibit binding and degradation of one another by the enzyme. Although there are significant immunological differences between the mammalian and Drosophila enzymes, the substrate specificity has been highly conserved. These results demonstrate the existence of a selective TGF-alpha-degrading enzyme in both Drosophila and mammalian cells. The evolutionary conservation of the ability to degrade both insulin and TGF-alpha suggests that this property is important for the physiological role of the enzyme and its potential for regulating growth factor levels.     

Recombinant expression of human transforming growth factor-β isoforms in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Transforming growth factor-βs (TGF-βs) are multi functional growth modulators implicated in several physiological processes which include embryogenesis, inflammation, immune-suppression, wound healing, carcinogenesis and cellular differentiation. For clinical use, recombinant expression of TGF-βs is the only practical source because of very low yields from natural sources. Here, we report the recombinant expression of human TGF-βl and TGF-β2 in a mammalian expression system using a high expression eukaryotic vector driven by a cytomegalovirus promoter. Expression levels are as high as 0.97 μg/ml of TGF-βl and 0.24 μg/ml of TGF-β2 in conditioned media, sufficient for purification without the need for amplification of the gene using methotrexate.     

Human transforming growth factor-beta 3: recombinant expression, purification, and biological activities in comparison with transforming growth factors-beta 1 and -beta 2

Recent cDNA characterization has predicted the existence of a new member of the transforming growth factor family, transforming growth factor-beta 3 (TGF beta 3). However, nothing is known about the biological activities of the TGF beta 3 protein, since it has not been purified from any natural sources. We report here the recombinant expression in mammalian cells and the purification to apparent homogeneity of human TGF beta 3. The TGF beta 3 was evaluated in comparison with purified TGF beta 1 and TGF beta 2 in several assays for its effects on stimulation or inhibition of proliferation of mammalian cells. These analyses revealed that TGF beta 3 exerts activities similar to the two other TGF beta species, but that there are distinct differences in potencies between the different TGF beta forms depending on the cell type and assay used.     

Mitogenic and cytogenetic evaluation of transforming growth factor-β on murine preimplantation embryonic development in vitro

Slow cleavage rate has been a major contributory factor influencing embryo morphology in in vitro fertilization (IVF) programs. The role of transforming growth factor-b̃ (TGFb̃₁) in improving this characteristic was evaluated using the murine model. Replicate batches of eight-cell compacting embryos from superovulated mice were divided into three groups. Group A were treated with 0.3 ng/ml TGFb̃₁ at the initial compacting stage, followed by a second treatment of 0.1 ng/mL 22 h later at the cavitating stage; group B received 0.3 ng/ml TGFb̃₁ at the cavitating stage; group C were controls. The percentages of treated embryos reaching fixed embryonic stages, total cell number (TCN), mitotic index, and incidence of chromosome anomalies were monitored. The percentage of embryos reaching the cavitating, expanded, hatching, and hatched stages in both treatment groups were not significantly different from control (96.6% ± 4.2% to 37.7% ± 12.7% vs. 95.3% ± 7.3% to 47.0% ± 3.5%; P > 0.05). Values between the two treatment groups were also not significantly different. Embryos in groups A and B produced significantly greater TCN at expanded blastocyst and hatching stages compared to controls (Group A: 107.0 ± 18.9 vs. 89.9 ± 17.4, P < 0.05 and 125.5 ± 16.4 vs. 113.9 ± 12.1, P < 0.05; Group B: 107.9 ± 14.0 vs. 89.9 ± 17.4, P < 0.05 and 124.9 ± 17.4 vs. 113.9 ± 12.1, P < 0.05). Values, however, were not significantly different between treatment groups. The mean mitotic index for eight-cell compacting embryos treated with a single dose of 0.3 ng/ml TGFb̃₁ was significantly greater than control (0.1944 ± 0.1376 vs. 0.1282 ± 0.2573, P < 0.05). No significant increase in the incidence of chromosome anomalies was observed in embryos exposed to TGFb̃₁. The results demonstrate that TGFb̃₁ had a tremendous mitogenic effect on late murine embryonic stages and may thus be useful to improve embryo morphology in IVF programs and to produce adequate metaphases from biopsied embryos for preimplantation cytogenetic diagnosis. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Density-dependent differentiation in nontransformed human retinal progenitor cells in response to basic fibroblast growth factor- and transforming growth factor-alpha

Multipotential retinal precursors give rise to all cell types seen in multilayered retina. The generation of differentiation and diversity of neuronal cell types is determined by both extrinsic regulatory signals and endogenous genetic programs. We have previously reported that cell commitment in human retinal precursor cells (SV-40T) can be modified in response to exogenous growth factors, basic fibroblast growth factor, and transforming growth factor alpha (bFGF and TGFalpha). We report in this study that nontransformed human retinal precursors differentiate into photoreceptors by a cell density-dependent mechanism, and the effects were potentiated by bFGF and TGFalpha alone or in combination. A larger proportion of multipotential precursors plated at a density of 1 x 10(4) cells/cm(2) differentiated into neurons (photoreceptors) compared to cells plated at 3-5 x 10(4)/cm(2) and 1 x 10(5) cells/cm(2) under serum-free conditions and the effects were amplified seven- to eightfold in response to growth factors. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and TGFalpha can induce 90% of the cells to assume a photoreceptor phenotype at a lower cell density, compared to only 30 and 25% of the cells acquiring a photoreceptor phenotype at intermediate and higher cell densities. Furthermore, at a lower cell density, 60-70% of the cells incorporate Bromodeoxyuridine (Brdu), suggesting that cells in a cell cycle may make a commitment to a specific fate in response to neurotrophins. Neurons with a photoreceptor phenotype were positive for three different sets of antibodies for rods/cones. Cells also exhibited upregulation of other proteins such as a D4 receptor protein expressed in photoreceptors, protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha) expressed in rod bipolars and blue cones, and some other neuronal cell types. This was also confirmed by Western blot analysis. Newly derived photoreceptors survive for a few days before significant cell death ensues under serum-free conditions. To summarize, differentiation in precursors is density dependent, and growth factors amplify the effects.     

Partial purification and characterization of masking protein for beta-type transforming growth factor from rat platelets

beta-Transforming growth factor (TGF-beta) is stored in platelets and secreted as a high molecular weight latent form associated with a carrier protein of about 440 KD. This carrier protein could be separated from TGF-beta in 1 N acetic acid and could again mask the activity of TGF-beta under neutral conditions. Therefore, it was named the masking protein of TGF-beta. The masking protein was separated from TGF-beta by gel filtration on a Sephacryl S-300 column or by anion-exchanger FPLC on a Mono Q column in the presence of 6 M urea. Partially purified masking protein from rat platelets neutralized the activity of TGF-beta dose-dependently and was effective at 0.3 microgram/ml. This masking protein could also mask the activity of human TGF-beta, suggesting that it was not species specific. The masking protein was a heat- and acid-stable protein, but was inactivated by treatment with dithiothreitol. The Physiological role of the masking protein in the mechanisms of wound healing and liver regeneration is discussed.