Dog and owner demographic characteristics and dog personality trait associations

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationships between four personality traits (calmness, trainability, dog sociability and boldness) of dogs (Canis familiaris) and dog and owner demographics on a large sample size with 14,004 individuals. German speaking dog owners could characterize their dog by filling out a form on the Internet. There were five demographic variables for dogs and nine for owners. Two statistical methods were used for investigating the associations between personality and demographic traits: the more traditional general linear methods and regression trees that are ideal for analyzing non-linear relationships in the structure of the data. The results showed that calmness is influenced primarily by the dog's age, the neutered status, the number of different types of professional training courses (e.g. obedience, agility) the dog had experienced and the age of acquisition. The least calm dogs were less than 2.5 years old, neutered and acquired after the first 12 weeks of age, while the calmest dogs were older than 6.9 years. Trainability was affected primarily by the training experiences, the dog's age, and the purpose of keeping the dog. The least trainable dogs had not received professional training at all and were older than 3 years. The most trainable dogs were those who participated in three or more types of professional training. Sociability toward conspecifics was mainly determined by the age, sex, training experience and time spent together. The least sociable dogs were older than 4.8 years and the owners spent less than 3 h with the dog daily. The most sociable dogs were less than 1.5 years old. Males were less sociable toward their conspecifics than females. Boldness was affected by the sex and age of the dog and the age of acquisition. The least bold were females acquired after the age of 1 year or bred by the owner. The boldest dogs were males, acquired before the age of 12 weeks, and were younger than 2 years old. Other variables, including the owner's gender, age, education, previous experience with dogs, the number of people and dogs in the household, and purpose of keeping the dogs had minor, but detectable effects. The results suggest that on-line questionnaires are a very effective means for collecting data about dog behavior, especially if owners are motivated by instant feedback. However, note that the characteristics of dogs in the present study were reported by the owners, and the associations with the traits do not necessarily represent a causal relationship.     

The Relationship between Personality Match and Pet Satisfaction among Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

We investigated the extent to which personality match between dog and owner is related to pet satisfaction. Prior research shows that owners relinquish dogs at a high rate, not only in the United States, but also in other countries. New procedures to match owners to future pets could reduce the problem of homeless pets. These were developed after examining the literature to determine all possible traits in dogs and conducting structured interviews to check for further traits. After doing this, 45 traits were determined, and two surveys were created. One survey assessed the personality traits of the dog, and the other assessed the owner's personality traits. In our study, 88 dog owners were asked to report their satisfaction with their self-selected dog and to describe their dog's personality characteristics, based on eight dimensions. Correlations between dog satisfaction scores and dog–owner personality match revealed four characteristics that were significantly associated with satisfaction: tendency to share possessions, love of running outside, likeliness of being destructive, and ability to get along with others. These results suggest that prospective dog owners may want to consider adopting dogs who match their personality on these characteristics. Matching the personality of dogs and their owners on a few characteristics may predict owner satisfaction. This is important as it may reduce the number of dogs that are relinquished by owners as well as the number of dogs left homeless each year.     

Living with Wild Dogs: Personality Dimensions in Captive Dingoes (Canis dingo) and Implications for Ownership

Despite the commonly held belief that wild canines do not make “good” household companions, many people choose to live with them. The aim of the present study was to investigate owner-rated personality in a population of dingoes living as companion animals. Owners recruited from a registered dingo organization assessed the personality of 40 dingoes using the Monash Canine Personality Questionnaire- Revised (MCPQ-R). The dingoes (22 female; 18 male) ranged in age from 6 months to 11 years (M = 3.6 years, SD = 2.4); weighed an average of 19.07 kg (SD = 3.41); were mostly entire (i.e., not de-sexed or spayed or neutered; 62.5%) and lived in multiple dingo households (72.5%). Results show that dingoes were rated significantly higher than domestic dogs (n = 455; various breeds from a previous Australian study) for the dimension Motivation/Self-Assuredness (p < 0.001), and significantly lower than dogs for Training Focus (p < 0.001). Many of the personality traits of dingoes reside outside what is considered “ideal” characteristics important for a successful and rewarding dog–owner relationship. It is possible that dingo personality rests within the realms of what is “acceptable” pet canine behavior, at least for some owners, and that they may have adjusted their perception and attitudes to meet their expectations of the species. Motivations for dingo ownership and the applicability of using a domestic dog personality questionnaire on wild canids are discussed.     

Adoption of shelter dogs in a Brazilian community: assessing the caretaker profile

A survey in Ibiuna, Sao Paulo, Brazil, of caregivers (owners) who adopted shelter dogs assessed length of ownership, proportion of male and female dogs adopted, and owners' characteristics. It addressed breeding, neutering, vaccination, and veterinary care. It used no testing to provide a good “match ”between dog and future owner. Of adopted dogs, 58% were male. Only 36% of owners were located. Mean ownership length was 14.8 months (95% confidence interval = 12.4 to 17.2 months), estimated through a survival analysis method. Of adopted dogs, 40.9% lived with their owners; 34.9% had died (some had lived on the streets); 15.0% were donated; 4.3% ran away; 3.2% were returned to the city shelter. Of interviewees, 57% reported no difficulties with the adoption; 23.1% cited the animal's illness and death as the main difficulty. For contraception, 87 owners (46.7%) chained dogs to prevent contact with other animals; 56.5% were against neutering. Reasons given were compassion (58.1%), unnecessary procedure (11.4%), cost (9.5%), and behavior change (4.8%). This research motivated a design for Ibiuna shelter dog adoption to improve the proportion of successful adoptions.     

The Emotional Lives of Companion Animals: Attachment and Subjective Claims by Owners of Cats and Dogs

There is a growing body of scientific evidence supporting the existence of emotions in nonhuman animals. Companion-animal owners show a strong connection and attachment to their animals and readily assign emotions to them. In this paper we present information on how the attachment level of companion-animal owners correlates with their attribution of emotions to their companion cat or dog and their attribution of mirrored emotions. The results of an online questionnaire, completed by 1,023 Dutch-speaking cat and/or dog owners (mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium), suggest that owners attribute several emotions to their pets. Respondents attributed all posited basic (anger, joy [happiness], fear, surprise, disgust, and sadness) and complex (shame, jealousy, disappointment, and compassion) emotions to their companion animals, with a general trend toward basic emotions (with the exception of sadness) being more commonly attributed than complex emotions. All pet owners showed strong attachment to their companion animal(s), with the degree of attachment (of both cat and dog owners) varying significantly with education level and gender. Owners who ascribed human characteristics to their dog or cat also scored higher on the Pet Bonding Scale (PBS). Finally, owners who found it pleasant to pet their dog or cat had a higher average PBS score than those who did not like to do so. The relationship between owners’ attributions of mirrored emotions and the degree of attachment to dogs was significant for all emotions, whilst for cats this relationship was significant only for joy, sadness, surprise, shame, disappointment, and compassion.     

Two Sides of the City: Dog-keeping Practices in Russian Urban Areas

This article examines dog–owner relations and dog ownership in Omsk, Russia. We describe typical dog-keeping practices and reveal how diverse urban environments can influence these practices. A two-stage survey was conducted in 2014 to determine the numbers and management of dogs owned. In total, some 1,583 households at the first stage of the research and 323 households at the second stage were interviewed face-to-face. About 23% of all households in Omsk owned dogs, but this proportion varied markedly for different parts of the city. In the city's single-story area, 71.5% of households had dogs, while in the multi-story area this was only 10.8%. Dog-keeping practices were different in these areas. Significant differences in these practices were shown for almost all aspects: the selection criteria, dog feeding, veterinary treatment, dog walking, the roles of dogs, and owners’ attitudes toward them. Owners living in the single-story area demonstrated a utilitarian or functional approach to their dogs—influencing the sex, size, and the breed of the animal. Dogs often lived outside the house; they were vaccinated and taken to the veterinarian less often than dogs from the multi-story area. The owners in the multi-story area described more affectionate feelings toward their dogs. This is reflected in both the choice and treatment of the animals. We observed a larger proportion of pedigree dogs, a larger proportion of female animals, more vaccinations, and the owners making a variety of purchases for their dogs.     

Self-disclosure with Dogs: Dog Owners’ and Non-dog Owners’ Willingness to Disclose Emotional Topics

Many owners talk to their pets about a wide range of issues, but there is very little research that has considered the content of this, or its impact on owner wellbeing. Verbal disclosure brings a range of potential health benefits, yet a number of factors may prevent individuals from confiding in their partners or friends (confidants). As such, in some circumstances, dogs may provide a more favorable alternative focus for disclosure. In a survey, we assessed dog owners’ (n = 286) and non-dog owners’ (n = 64) self-reported willingness to talk to their dog (dog owners only), their partner and their confidant. We used the Emotional Self Disclosure Scale (ESDS) for non-dog owners, and an adapted version of this for dog owners: Emotional Self Disclosure Scale–Dog Owners (ESDS-DO). Both dog owners and non-dog owners demonstrated a greater willingness to disclose to their partner than a confidant. For dog owners, their dog appeared to play a similar role as their partner, with greater willingness to talk to their dog about depression, jealousy, anxiety, calmness, apathy, and fear-related emotions, compared with a confidant. When talking about jealousy and apathy, dog owners reported greater willingness to talk to their dog than their partner or a confidant, but between-group comparisons (dog owner vs non-dog owner) revealed that dog owners and non-dog owners did not significantly differ in their willingness to talk to their partner or confidant, suggesting human relationships were not negatively affected by confiding to the dog. Participant age and length of relationship with their partner did not affect disclosure patterns for dog owners or non-dog owners. Males and females showed different willingness to disclose to confidants, but not to dogs. The results have implications for considering the value of dogs for human psychological health.     

Avoidance reactions of domestic dogs to unfamiliar male and female humans in a kennel setting

Most kennel owners and veterinarians prefer women assistants because these animalcare professionals assume that women elicit less avoidance from domestic animals than men. To evaluate this assumption, 10 male and 10 female dogs were given two human-reaction tests to assess their behavior in the presence of an unfamiliar man or woman in a commercial kennel setting. Female dogs showed little reluctance to approach and make contact with the unfamiliar human, regardless of the person's gender. In contrast, male dogs were much less likely to approach and make body contact with the unfamiliar man.     

Book Reviews

Abstract

A study of the attitudes and actions of 281 dog owners towards neutering their animals is reported from New Providence, The Bahamas. Owner attitudes towards neutering are associated with different sterilization rates of dogs. While owners' gender is associated with differences in attitudes, these differences are not necessarily associated with owner behavior with respect to neutering their animals. Men, more than women, want to have animals for long-term breeding. No evidence is found to support the belief that men are less likely to neuter their dogs than women, but younger owners are less likely than older owners to neuter their dogs. A comparison with a study from Australia suggests that Bahamians are more likely to project human traits on to their animals and so appear more reluctant to have their dogs neutered.     

Factors influencing the temporal patterns of dyadic behaviours and interactions between domestic cats and their owners

Human-cat dyads may be similar in interaction structure to human dyads because many humans regard their cats as being social companions. Consequently, we predict that dyadic structure will be contingent on owner and cat personalities, sex, and age as well as duration of cohabitation of the partners. Forty owner-cat dyads were visited in their homes, on four occasions, during which their behaviours and interactions were video-taped. Behaviour was coded from tape and was analysed for temporal (t)-patterns using Theme^® (Noldus; Magnusson, 1996). Owner personality was assessed using the NEO-FFI. Five cat personality axes were identified by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on observer-rated items and on coded behaviours. We found that the higher the owner in neuroticism, the fewer t-patterns occurred per minute. The higher the owner in extraversion, the higher was the number of non-overlapping patterns per minute. The more “active” the cat, the fewer non-overlapping patterns occurred per minute, but the higher was the event type complexity. The older the cat, the lower was dyadic event type complexity. We suggest that basic temporal structures similar to those of human-cat dyads may also be found in other long-term and complex dyadic relationships, including those between humans.     

Exotic Animal Companions and the Personality of Their Owners

ABSTRACT

The present study explored sex-specific differences in the Big Five factors of personality between different pet ownership groups, in order to understand individual differences in the choice of companion animals. A total of 250 pet owners completed a German version of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). For the first analysis, participants were divided into four broad groups: those owning traditional pets (e.g., cats, dogs), those owning cold-blooded exotic pets, those owning warm-blooded exotic pets, and those not owning animals. For the second analysis, participants were subdivided into nine groups, based on species of animal owned: cats, dogs, birds, fish, reptiles, spider/insect, small mammals, owners of many different animals, and non-owners. In both analyses, separate analyses of variance were applied to the scores of the NEO-FFI scales. Interaction effects between sex and several ownership groups on the traits Openness to Experience and Agreeableness were found in both analyses. Female owners of traditional pets scored, for example, significantly lower on openness to experience than female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets as well as male owners of traditional pets. Furthermore, female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly higher on openness to experience than their male counterparts. Regarding agreeableness, male owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly lower than their female counterparts as well as male owners of traditional pets. These and other results indicate that personality may affect choice of pets—but in different directions for the two sexes.     

The Responsible Dog Owner: The Construction of Responsibility

ABSTRACT

Policy and campaigning messages related to dog ownership and welfare center on the concept of responsible ownership. However, the perspectives and experiences of pet owners and how they perceive and perform their responsibilities has not been studied in depth. This qualitative study used conversations about owning and walking dogs in order to elucidate beliefs and views about responsibility in dog ownership. Data comprised 12 in-depth interviews with dog-owning households, 14 short interviews with dog owners while walking their dogs or representing their breed at a dog show, and autoethnography of the first author’s experiences owning and walking dogs. All participants considered themselves responsible dog owners, yet there was great variation in key aspects of their dog-owning behavior. The feelings of responsibility were rooted in the valued unconditional and reciprocal love that owners believed underpinned their human–dog bond. Dogs were described as dependents, similar to, but different from, children. In deciding how to look after their dogs, owners sought to balance their views of dogs as kin, having individual needs to be met, with consideration of the needs of others. Four processes through which issues of irresponsible dog ownership may arise were suggested: owner–dog relationship being too weak or too strong; differences in interpretation of what is best for the dog; difficulties predicting and avoiding situations of conflict; and differences in tolerance of negative impacts of dog ownership. While “responsible dog ownership” has considerable appeal as a concept, how it is perceived and interpreted varies so extensively that simply telling owners that they should “be responsible” is of limited use as a message to promote behavior change. Facilitating “responsible dog ownership” and reducing “irresponsible dog owner” behaviors relies on a detailed understanding of the variables which influence how the dog’s role is constructed within the family and the wider society.     

Validation of a Health-related Quality of Life (QoL) Questionnaire for Owners of Dogs with Heart Disease

ABSTRACT

In humans, heart disease is associated with high caregiver burden and stress, which can negatively affect the health-related quality of life (hrQoL) of both patient and caregiver. The effect of a dog’s heart disease on owners’ hrQoL has not been reported. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop and validate a hrQoL questionnaire for owners of dogs with heart disease, with the hypothesis that heart disease would impact the hrQoL of owners. Owners of dogs with degenerative mitral valve disease, dilated cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy were eligible for the study. A 7-item questionnaire was developed, with a possible range of scores from 0–35 (higher scores indicated worse owner hrQoL). The questionnaire was self-administered by owners and results were analyzed to determine validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency. The Functional EvaluaTion of Cardiac Health (FETCH) questionnaire was used to assess dogs’ hrQoL. Two hundred and seventeen owners of dogs with heart disease were enrolled. Median owner hrQoL score was 6 (range, 0–31) and median FETCH hrQoL score was 7 (range, 0–70). The owner hrQoL score was correlated with the FETCH score (r = 0.76, p < 0.001) and severity of dogs’ disease (r = 0.53, p < 0.001). Test-retest reliability was high (r = 0.83, p < 0.001). These results suggest that the owner hrQoL questionnaire has good reliability and validity, and that further testing of this questionnaire is warranted to optimize communication with owners regarding the care of dogs with heart disease.     

Dogs and Owners Resemble Each Other in the Eye Region

ABSTRACT

Although several studies have shown perceived facial resemblance between photos of purebred dogs and their owners, none of these studies has clarified which part of the face is critical for such an impression to arise. The series of experiments presented here identified the critical feature underlying the perceived dog–owner facial resemblance. In total, 502 Japanese undergraduate students participated in the study. Two sets of 20 dog–owner photo pairs had been color-printed on a test sheet: the dogs varied in breed and the owners were Japanese males and females in their twenties to sixtieswho were unknown to the participants. One set comprised real pairs, while the other was a fake set (i. e., each dog was paired with another dog's owner). As in a previous study, the majority of participants (from two-thirds to three-quarters) reported that the former set was more similar than the latter. This was also the case even when the mouth regions of the owners' faces were masked by black bars. However, masking the eye regions of either dogs or owners reduced the choice performance to a chance level of around 50%. Furthermore, choice performance was equally good and above the chance level, regardless of whether the entire faces were shown or only the eye regions of the dogs and owners were visible. These results strongly suggest that dogs and owners resemble each other in the eye region. This finding also ruled out the possibility that any nonphysiognomic features (e. g., owners' hairstyles and people's stereotypical concepts about dog ownership) or similarity of obesity are determinate for the perceived dog–owner resemblance.     

Elephant

ABSTRACT

The aim of this exploratory study was to determine heart rate and the levels of oxytocin, cortisol, and insulin in dogs and their owners in response to a short-term interaction. In addition, the dogs' behavior was studied. The owners' responses were compared with those obtained from a control group. Ten female volunteers and their own male Labrador dogs participated in an experiment during which the owner stroked, petted, and talked with her dog during the first 3 minutes. Blood samples were collected from both dog and owner before (0) and at 1, 3, 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes after the start of the interaction. Blood samples were analyzed by EIA. Heart rate was monitored telemetrically. The data were analyzed using linear mixed models and paired t-tests. The dogs' oxytocin levels were significantly increased 3 minutes after the start of the interaction (p = 0.027). Cortisol levels were significantly increased after 15 and 30 minutes (p = 0.004 and p = 0.022, respectively), and heart rate was significantly decreased after 55 minutes (p = 0.008). The dogs displayed normal behaviors during the experiment. The owners' oxytocin levels peaked between 1 and 5 minutes after interaction (p = 0.026). No such effect was seen in the controls. Cortisol levels displayed a significant decrease at 15 or 30 minutes in both owners and controls, and insulin levels did so at 60 minutes (p = 0.030, p = 0.002 and p = 0.002, p < 0.0001, respectively). Heart rate decreased significantly in the owners at 55 and 60 minutes (p = 0.0008) but not in the controls. In conclusion, short-term sensory interaction between dogs and their owners influences hormonal levels and heart rate. However, further studies need to be performed in order to better understand the effects of interaction between dogs and their owners.     

The Canine Cuteness Effect: Owner-Perceived Cuteness as a Predictor of Human–Dog Relationship Quality

ABSTRACT

The modern domestic dog's primary function is as a human companion. A strong human–dog relationship may be beneficial to both parties but not all relationships are successful. There is currently no consensus on why some dog–owner relationships flourish and others fail, but relationship quality may be partly influenced by canine characteristics. The extent to which canine cuteness and canine personality factors predict human–dog relationship quality was examined. In study 1, 668 dog owners completed two relationship-quality surveys, rated their dog's personality and physical cuteness, and were invited to submit a photograph of their dog. Personality measures and cuteness ratings predicted each measure of relationship quality, with cuteness being the strongest unique predictor in three of seven standard multiple regression models (all p<0.001). In study 2, 873 independent participants were presented with one of 42 images selected from those provided in study 1. Participants rated the dog's cuteness and its likely personality attributes. Strangers (M=6.69, SD=0.83) typically rated each dog as being less cute than did the owner (M=8.93, SD=1.80; t(41₎=7.39, p<0.001, two tailed), and how cute they perceived the dog to be influenced their ratings of some aspects of its likely personality. Measures of relationship quality provided by owners were not significantly associated with stranger cuteness ratings or with the degree of difference between owner and stranger cuteness ratings. These results suggest a bi-directional relationship between perceived cuteness and other attributes: cute dogs are perceived to have more desirable personality traits, but having a strong relationship with a dog may also inflate its perceived cuteness. These findings have implications for those involved in dog breeding, selection, and training, as well as shelter management.     

Exploring Social (Non-working) Behavior in Guide Dogs from the Perspective of Guide Dog Owners

The guide dog partnership begins at the point of matching, when careful assessment of a trained guide dog and an understanding of the functional needs and expectations of the prospective owner are considered alongside each other. Guide Dogs UK invest much time and resources to the process of matching a client with a dog in order to fulfil client expectations and create a lasting partnership. This study explores: (1) the meaning and importance of social (non-working) behavior to guide dog owners; (2) how firsthand experience and knowledge shape individual owner expectations for behavior; and (3) how, and in what ways, social behavior impacts the guide dog partnership. The focus group method was used to collect qualitative data from a total of 11 participants. The data were analyzed using a thematic analysis procedure which identified six overarching themes: “social behavior to me means,” internal and external factors influencing social behavior, training and matching, socially desirable and undesirable behaviors, maintaining and managing social behavior, and practical and emotional issues. Findings show that social behavior is as important as guiding skills and mobility for guide dog owners, and behavioral compatibility is held to be crucial in a successful partnership. Participants put an emphasis on consistency of behavior in social settings, while recognizing that a guide dog's non-working behavior is subject to multifarious internal and external influences. The findings of this study indicate an opportunity for Guide Dogs UK, and similar assistance dog organizations, to observe fully the importance of social behavior and, in response, place even greater emphasis on lifestyle and behavioral compatibility when training dogs and matching them with clients.     

Book Review

ABSTRACT

Previous studies conducted in the United States and Venezuela have demonstrated that people can correctly match portraits of unknown purebred dogs with their owners at statistically significant levels, suggesting that the popular belief in dog–owner physical resemblance is empirically valid. We investigated the perceived physical resemblance of dog–owner pairs in Japan, where the owners are racially more homogenous than in the countries in which the previous studies were conducted. In experiment 1, the matching performance by naïve judges was statistically significant, and a supplementary test suggested that perceived dog–owner physical resemblance plays a critical role in this. Experiment 2 presented a new procedure to test the perceived dog–owner physical resemblance and demonstrated that two-thirds of the judges selected a set of 20 real dog–owner pairs over a set of 20 fake dog–owner pairs, irrespective of whether it was an ownership-guessing task or a resemblance-based choice task. The ability to match correct dog–owner pairs (experiment 1) and the sensitivity to differentiate between real and fake dog–owner pairs (experiment 2) were not unique to the characteristics of the judges (e.g., whether or not they were dog lovers) because the task performance was independent of any measured judge-related factor. These results, taken together, provide another piece of positive evidence for the popular belief that there is a physical resemblance between dogs and their owners. Furthermore, the demonstration of dog–owner physical resemblance with racially homogeneous owner samples supports the generality and robustness of this phenomenon. The mechanism underlying this phenomenon (i.e., owners' selection of dogs that look like themselves or the convergence of appearance over time), however, remains to be elucidated by future studies.