The year of the tiger and the year of tiger genomes!

Tigers are endangered apex predators. They typify endangered species because they are elusive, rare, and face numerous threats across their range. Tigers also symbolize conservation. However, it is very difficult to study tigers because of their stated nature. Also, tiger conservation is a geopolitically sensitive topic, making it difficult to use the studies to propose evidence-based management that allows their recovery, especially in the context of conservation genetics. Zhang et al. (Mol. Ecol. Resour., 2022) have created very valuable and rare resources to aid the community in conserving tigers. First, they present chromosome level genome assemblies of a South China tiger and an Amur tiger. Second, they present whole genome sequences of 16 captive South China tigers. Additionally, by using the assemblies they model the demographic history of these populations, estimate inbreeding and the potential threats they face in captivity. This approach is particularly important because genetic management is now the only remaining option for South China tigers, because they are extinct in the wild. In other words, captive individuals are our only hope for some day restoring the wild populations of South China tigers.     

Environmental effects on the behavior of zoo-housed lions and tigers, with a case study of the effects of a visual barrier on pacing

Tigers and lions in the wild are nocturnal nonhuman animals who may hunt and mate opportunistically during daylight hours. In captivity, they spend most time on exhibit sleeping or pacing. To better understand their activity budget, this study examined the daily behavior patterns of 2 Sumatran tigers and 3 African lions in different housings. The proportion of scans the large felids spent engaged in stereotypic pacing varied by time of day and environment. The tigers spent different amounts of time pacing when housed in different exhibits; the lions paced more in off-exhibit housing than when on exhibit. These differences suggest changes to the cats' immediate housing environment may decrease pacing but provide little insight into altering specifics. Carnivores' pacing relates to their inability to control sensory access to social partners. Both environments with increased pacing contained chain-link fencing. allowing uncontrolled sensory contact. Where the tigers paced, the study placed a visual barrier between one female and keepers' or conspecifics' cues. This did not significantly decrease pacing. However, the study suggests considering sensory access and environmental variables when designing environments for captive carnivores.     

Environmental Effects on the Behavior of Zoo-housed Lions and Tigers,with a Case Study o the Effects of a Visual Barrier on Pacing

Tigers and lions in the wild are nocturnal nonhuman animals who may hunt and mate opportunistically during daylight hours. In captivity, they spend most time on exhibit sleeping or pacing. To better understand their activity budget, this study examined the daily behavior patterns of 2 Sumatran tigers and 3 African lions in different housings. The proportion of scans the large felids spent engaged in stereotypic pacing varied by time of day and environment. The tigers spent different amounts of time pacing when housed in different exhibits; the lions paced more in off-exhibit housing than when on exhibit. These differences suggest changes to the cats' immediate housing environment may decrease pacing but provide little insight into altering specifics. Carnivores' pacing relates to their inability to control sensory access to social partners. Both environments with increased pacing contained chain-link fencing. allowing uncontrolled sensory contact. Where the tigers paced, the study placed a visual barrier between one female and keepers' or conspecifics' cues. This did not significantly decrease pacing. However, the study suggests considering sensory access and environmental variables when designing environments for captive carnivores.     

虎源猫泛白细胞减少症病毒灭活疫苗的制备及初步应用

摘要：【目的】研制出虎源猫泛白细胞减少症病毒灭活疫苗并对其应用效果进行评价。【方法】以FPV-HLJ为种毒,按1×10-2接毒量,采用同步接毒的方法接于猫肾传代细胞系F81株,于37 ℃静置培养,待细胞病变（CPE）达到75 %以上时,进行收毒。病毒悬液经甲醛灭活24 h,加入佐剂氢氧化铝胶,制备成FPV-HLJ细胞培养灭活疫苗。【结果】皮下接种2月龄非免疫家猫,结果显示,实验组免疫猫FPV HI抗体水平随免疫次数的增加而呈上升趋势,三免后FPV HI抗体效价为1:1024～1：2048,且免疫猫能抵抗FPV强毒攻击,具有100 %的存活率。随后将该苗接种2月龄左右幼虎,三免后抗体效价多数能达到1：1024。【结论】表明此灭活苗可产生较为理想的免疫效果。     

Dangerous animals in captivity: Ex situ tiger conflict and implications for private ownership of exotic animals

The risks associated with tiger attacks on people in the wild are well documented. There may currently be more tigers in captivity than in the wild, but relatively little is known about the risks of injury or death associated with owning and managing captive tigers and other large carnivores. The purpose of this study was to conduct a global assessment of attacks by captive tigers on people, with particular emphasis on cases in the United States. Our analysis of 30 international media sources and additional documents uncovered 59 unique incidents in 1998–2001 in which people were reportedly injured or killed by captive tigers. In the United States, seven people were reportedly killed and at least 27 were injured—a rate of 1.75 fatal attacks and at least nine nonfatal attacks per year. All but one fatal attack in the United States occurred in situations where tigers were privately owned or held in private facilities. Forty‐two percent of the victims were classified as visitors, and almost one‐quarter of the victims were under the age of 20. These results suggest that the victims underestimated the dangers posed by direct contact with these animals. In this work we review current legislation regarding captive ownership of tigers and other large exotic animals, and contradict claims by those who support private ownership of tigers and other large felids that the risks associated with owning and viewing these animals are insignificant. We conclude that the growing number of people who own tigers and other large exotic animals is cause for concern because of the danger to the animals, the handlers, and the public. The problem of private ownership of dangerous exotic animals has broad implications for tiger and large‐carnivore conservation, public health, and animal welfare. We support the regulation of private ownership of dangerous exotic animals, and encourage scientific analysis of this contentious issue. Zoo Biol 22:573–586, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

吉林珲春自然保护区东北虎和东北豹及其有蹄类猎物的多度与分布

珲春国家级自然保护区是东北虎(Panthera tigris altaica)、东北豹(Panthera pardus orientalis)等濒危物种在中国的核心分布区。为了探究该区域野生动物的多度水平和空间分布, 了解人类干扰情况, 我们运用相对多度指数(relative abundance index, RAI)分析了2013年4-6月设置于此的83个红外相机位点的监测数据。红外相机的总捕获天数6,060 d, 共捕获10科18种野生哺乳动物, 其中鼬科4种, 猫科动物3种, 犬科、鹿科和松鼠科各2种, 猪科、熊科、麝科、猬科和兔科各1种。研究期间共拍摄到东北虎11只个体, 东北豹13只个体。从相对多度指数来看, 东北虎的相对多度(0.84)远高于东北豹(0.48), 它们的有蹄类猎物中梅花鹿(Cervus nippon)的相对多度最高(2.18), 其次为狍(Capreolus pygargus)(1.53)和野猪(Sus scrofa)(0.92)。人类活动和放牧的相对多度水平(分别为40.64和2.76)显著高于野生动物。在空间分布上, 东北虎和梅花鹿主要在保护区的核心区分布, 且与保护区社区共管区的多度水平差异显著, 而东北豹在不同功能区之间的分布差异不显著, 狍在保护区北部的多度水平较高, 但各功能区之间差异不显著, 野猪在社区共管区的多度水平显著高于核心区。可见, 核心区频繁的人类活动和放牧活动对野生动物的保护产生了影响, 未来应加强关于人类干扰对虎、豹种群及其有蹄类猎物的影响评估。     

The impact of a legal trade in farmed tigers on consumer preferences for tiger bone glue – Evidence from a choice experiment in Vietnam

Demand for tiger parts and products has fuelled the poaching of wild tigers. As the supply of wild tigers has become scarce, tiger farming has emerged as an alternative source and proliferated in several Asian countries with unclear implications of a legalized trade in farmed tigers on wild tiger demand. We conducted a choice experiment with 228 Vietnamese tiger bone glue consumers investigating their preferences and trade-offs for different attributes of their purchase choice, including legality, source, purity, and price. We calculated consumers' willingness to pay for each attribute level under the current trade ban and in a hypothetical legal trade. Consumers preferred and were willing to pay more for wild than farmed tiger glue and a higher proportion of tiger bone in the glue. Consumers also preferred legal over illegal sufficiently for most to switch from illegal wild to legal farmed tiger. Hence, a legal trade will shift preferences significantly towards farmed tiger glue from legal sources but will not eradicate demand for wild tigers, likely leading to the parallel operation of legal and illegal markets. We discuss the implications of the results for conserving wild tigers through efforts to manage demand in Vietnam.     

华南虎、东北虎、孟加拉虎的D-100p和ND5序列及其在系统进化分析中的应用

本文采用PCR和质粒克隆测序方法,获得了华南虎线粒体D-loop区的480bp序列和东北虎、孟加拉虎线粒体D-loop区的503bp序列;同时还获得了这三个虎亚种和金钱豹线粒体ND5基因5’端309bp的部分序列。根据D-loop序列分析,华南虎与孟加拉虎、东北虎的平均距离(p-distance)分别为0．11088和O．11087,而东北虎与孟加拉虎间的平均距离为0．00994;根据ND5序列分析,华南虎与孟加拉虎、东北虎的平均距离分别为0．11434和0．11758,而东北虎与孟加拉虎间的平均距离为0．00324。三个虎亚种的mtDNA D-loop和ND5序列比较表明,华南虎是这三个虎亚种中最为古老的亚种。     

Penetration of zona-free hamster ova by Siberian tiger sperm

Sperm from the electroejaculate of captive Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) penetrated zona pellucida-free hamster ova in vitro, evidenced by a decondensation reaction. This assay, when used in conjunction with semen analysis, may be useful in assessing the fertility potential of males of this and other related felids. Such information is an important step in developing successful long-term management strategies for captive and wild populations of this severely endangered species.     

Nutrient digestibility and fecal characteristics are different among captive exotic felids fed a beef‐based raw diet

Nutrient digestibility has not been well characterized in exotic felids. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate differences in nutrient digestibility and fecal characteristics in five large exotic captive felid species, including bobcats, jaguars, cheetahs, Indochinese tigers, and Siberian tigers. All animals were individually housed and adapted to a beef‐based raw diet (Nebraska Brand^® Special Beef Feline, North Platte, NE) for 16 d. Total fecal collections were conducted from days 17 to 20. Fecal samples were weighed and scored on collection. Diet and fecal samples were evaluated for dry matter, organic matter, protein, fat, and energy to determine total tract digestibility. Fresh fecal samples were collected to determine fecal pH, ammonia, phenol, indole, short‐chain fatty acid, and branched‐chain fatty acid concentrations. Fecal scores were greater (P<0.01) in Indochinese tigers when compared with all other species, and cheetahs had greater (P<0.01) fecal scores than jaguars and bobcats. Fat digestibility was greater (P<0.01) in Siberian tigers, Indochinese tigers, and bobcats (96%) compared with cheetahs and jaguars (94%). Digestible energy was greater (P<0.05) in bobcats and Indochinese tigers at 93.5 and 92.9%, respectively, compared with cheetahs and jaguars, 91.6%. Fecal pH was greater (P<0.01) in bobcats compared with all other species evaluated. Indole concentrations were greater (P<0.05) in cheetahs and jaguars compared with bobcats and Indochinese tigers. Fecal ammonia concentrations were increased (P<0.05) in cheetahs compared with all other species. The beef‐based raw diet was highly digestible; however, differences in fat and digestible energy suggest that species should be considered when determining caloric needs of exotic felids. Zoo Biol 27:126–136, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Comparative Skull Analysis Suggests Species-Specific Captivity-Related Malformation in Lions (Panthera leo)

Lion (Panthera leo) populations have dramatically decreased worldwide with a surviving population estimated at 32,000 across the African savannah. Lions have been kept in captivity for centuries and, although they reproduce well, high rates of stillbirths as well as morbidity and mortality of neonate and young lions are reported. Many of these cases are associated with bone malformations, including foramen magnum (FM) stenosis and thickened tentorium cerebelli. The precise causes of these malformations and whether they are unique to captive lions remain unclear. To test whether captivity is associated with FM stenosis, we evaluated 575 lion skulls of wild (N = 512) and captive (N = 63) origin. Tiger skulls (N = 276; 56 captive, 220 wild) were measured for comparison. While no differences were found between males and females or between subadults and adults in FM height (FMH), FMH of captive lions (17.36±3.20 mm) was significantly smaller and with greater variability when compared to that in wild lions (19.77±2.11 mm). There was no difference between wild (18.47±1.26 mm) and captive (18.56±1.64 mm) tigers in FMH. Birth origin (wild vs. captive) as a factor for FMH remained significant in lions even after controlling for age and sex. Whereas only 20/473 wild lions (4.2%) had FMH equal to or smaller than the 5^th percentile of the wild population (16.60 mm), this was evident in 40.4% (23/57) of captive lion skulls. Similar comparison for tigers found no differences between the captive and wild populations. Lions with FMH equal to or smaller than the 5^th percentile had wider skulls with smaller cranial volume. Cranial volume remained smaller in both male and female captive lions when controlled for skull size. These findings suggest species- and captivity-related predisposition for the pathology in lions.     

福建梅花山圈养华南虎遗传状况分析

华南虎是世界上密切关注的旗舰物种,在过去的10 年间没有发现野生华南虎存在的证据,因此它是极度濒危的虎亚种。福建梅花山圈养华南虎群体是整个圈养华南虎群体的重要组成部分,拥有 12 只华南虎。基于组合长度为 3934 bp 的线粒体序列分析发现梅花山圈养华南虎拥有 3 种线粒体单倍型; 而基于 20 个微卫星位点基因型分析显示梅花山圈养华南虎一共有71 个等位基因,平均等位基因数是3. 55,等位基因丰度的平均值是3. 32,平均期望杂合度和多态信息含量( PIC) 分别为0. 513 和0. 445。这些提示梅花山华南虎圈养群体维持着较高的遗传多样性。     

西双版纳尚勇自然保护区野生印支虎及其三种主要有蹄类猎物种群现状调查

中国野生印支虎及其猎物种群状况的野外实地研究一直处于空白。本研究使用足迹鉴别法、粪堆计数法,首次对西双版纳尚勇自然保护区野生印支虎种群数量现状及该区域内的虎猎物种群状况进行了调查研究。结果显示:2004 ～ 2009 年间,确认西双版纳保护区存在3 只成年印支虎个体(2 雌1 雄),西双版纳尚勇保护区拥有比较丰富的有蹄类种群,其中虎的主要猎物:水鹿平均密度为7.63 (7.40 ～ 9.23)只/ km² ;赤麂平均密度为17. 39 (11.33 ～24.94)只/ km² ,野猪平均密度为10.26 (7.69 ～ 14.51) 只/ km² ,该区域虎猎物生物量为1 715. 74 kg/ km² 。本研究还探讨了该区域印支虎种群的保护前景以及中国境内开展虎种群调查的适用办法等。     

Effects of free-ranging,semi-captive and captive management on the acoustics of male rutting calls in Siberian wapiti <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus sibiricus</Emphasis>

In male European red deer Cervus elaphus, rutting calls that are responsible for male reproductive success are higher in fundamental frequency in captivity than in the wild. This study compares the acoustics of stag rutting calls among wild-living, semi-captive and captive stags within an Asian subspecies of C. elaphus, the Siberian wapiti Cervus elaphus sibiricus. Male Siberian wapiti rutting calls (bugles) were collected using automated recording systems in three populations (wild-living, semi-captive and captive), all originated from the Altai/Khakasian region of Central Siberia (Russia). Selected 435 bugles (145 per population) were analysed spectrographically for 14 variables of the bugle high (>1 kHz) fundamental frequency (g0) and scored for shape of g0 contour: trapeze, descending or saddle. Among bugles, 74.3% had the trapeze contour, 23.7% had the descending contour and 2.1% had the saddle contour. The additional low (<0.2 kHz) fundamental frequency (f0) was found in 76.1% of bugles, whereas deterministic chaos was found in 16.8% of bugles. Bugles of captive stags were shortest and highest in frequency. The captive management selectively affected only bugles with the trapeze contour, whereas bugles with descending contour remained unaffected by variations of deer holding regime. Stag rutting bugles are subspecies-specific and may therefore serve as acoustic indicator of subspecies for the Siberian wapiti among other Asian and American subspecies of wapiti.     

Captivity reduces hippocampal volume but not survival of new cells in a food‐storing bird

In many naturalistic studies of the hippocampus wild animals are held in captivity. To test if captivity itself affects hippocampal integrity, adult black‐capped chickadees (Poecile atricapilla) were caught in the fall, injected with bromodeoxyuridine to mark neurogenesis, and alternately released to the wild or held in captivity. The wild birds were recaptured after 4–6 weeks and perfused simultaneously with their captive counterparts. The hippocampus of captive birds was 23% smaller than wild birds, with no hemispheric differences in volume within groups. Between groups there was no statistically significant difference in the size of the telencephalon, or in the number and density of surviving new cells. Proximate causes of the reduced hippocampal volume could include stress, lack of exercise, diminished social interaction, or limited caching opportunity—a hippocampal‐dependent activity. The results suggest the avian hippocampus—a structure essential for rapid, complex relational and spatial learning—is both plastic and sensitive, much as in mammals, including humans. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol, 2009     

The Three-Dimensional Morphological Effects of Captivity

Many captive animals are fed diets that are drastically different in mechanical properties than their wild diet. Most captive pantherines are fed a nutritionally supplemented diet consisting almost entirely of ground meat. While many zoos supplement this diet with bones, the fact remains that large captive felids are fed diets that require substantially less masticatory effort than those of their wild counterparts. The osteological effects of this dietary difference have not been fully evaluated. To this end, we compared linear measurements and 3D geometric morphometric landmarks of captive and wild lions and tigers. Using Principal Component (PC) analysis of the linear measurements, not only were the sexes and species statistically distinct, but so too was the population clearly divisible in terms of captivity status. The 3D analysis supported these findings: although the most influential variable in the sample (PC1, 21.5% of the variation) separates the two species, the second most influential contributor (PC2) to the overall skull shape is driven not by the sex differences in these highly dimorphic species, but rather by their captivity status. In fact, captivity status drives nearly twice as much of the 3D variation as sexual dimorphism (14.8% vs. 8.0% for PC2 vs. PC3). Thus the shape is influenced nearly twice as much by whether the animal was captive or wild than by whether it was male or female. If a causal relationship can be demonstrated between dietary mechanical properties and morphology, people who oversee the diets of captive carnivores should consider modifying these diets to account for not only nutritional but also the mechanical properties of a carcass-based diet as well. In addition to the husbandry implications, our analyses show the ways in which captive specimens are different than their wild counterparts – findings that have implications for morphologists when considering anatomical samples.     

救护白鹤与野生白鹤迁徙路线和活动规律差异分析

受伤和体弱白鹤的救护及放归是白鹤保护的重要方式之一。2014—2016年间,先后对8只救护白鹤和2只野生白鹤进行环志并安装卫星跟踪器,根据所获得的卫星跟踪数据来分析比较救护白鹤与野生白鹤在秋季迁徙路线和在重要中途停歇地的最大日活动距离、活动区分布和面积、生境类型等方面的异同。结果显示,救护白鹤放归当年与放归次年以及救护白鹤放归当年与野生白鹤的秋季迁徙路线和活动规律之间存在明显差异,但救护白鹤放归次年与野生白鹤之间差异不明显。(1)放归当年,4只救护白鹤在农田和水塘停歇1个月左右,停歇时长明显高于野生白鹤和放归次年的救护白鹤。(2)救护白鹤放归当年在跨海方式、登陆地点、停歇地点以及登陆后的迁徙方向上表现出多样性和不确定性,其中部分个体在迁徙过程中有停顿徘徊、迷失迁徙方向的现象,且跨越渤海和大别山的距离大于放归次年的救护白鹤和野生白鹤。(3)救护白鹤放归后4天内每日最大活动距离小,而后高低分化明显,无明显规律,而救护白鹤放归次年的每日最大活动距离规律变化与野生白鹤较一致。(4)与救护白鹤放归次年以及野生白鹤的活动规律相比,救护白鹤放归当年的栖息地位点变化频繁,具体表现为生境类型选择的多样化,且无明显规律,同时活动区面积较小。探索救护白鹤放归野外后与野生白鹤迁徙路线和活动规律的差异,对救护白鹤的科学放归具有指导意义。     

Immunoreactive luteinizing hormone, estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione levels during the breeding season and anestrus in Siberian tigers

Seasonal analysis of 1239 captive births of Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) indicated a peak in April to June (P less than 0.001). Studies on seven animals in Minnesota indicated that behavioral heat cycles and ovarian follicular phase cycles began in late January and ceased in early June. Behavioral observation of 12 heat cycles in four tigers yielded an estrous length of 5.3 +/- 0.2 days and an interestrous interval of 25.0 +/- 1.3 days. Hormone assays on weekly blood samples (N = 180) from three female tigers indicated 16 cycles in two breeding seasons. Peak estradiol-17 beta levels were 46.7 +/- 6.0 pg/ml (N = 17) and interestrous concentrations were 8.7 +/- 0.66 pg/ml (N = 28) during the breeding season. Anestrous estradiol levels were 4.2 +/- 0.5 pg/ml (N = 70). The interestrous interval between estradiol peaks was 24.9 +/- 1.3 days (N = 9) with two outliers of 42 days. Serum progesterone concentrations from February to June were 1.2 +/- 0.15 ng/ml (N = 32), providing no evidence for ovulation or corpus luteum formation. Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were 0.56 +/- 0.04 ng/ml (N = 180). Serum testosterone (r=0.71, P less than 0.001) and androstenedione levels (r=0.75, P less than 0.001) were correlated with estradiol during the breeding season. The duration of anestrus was 8 mo in two of these tigers. The interval was shortened in one tiger by exposure to a 16L:8D photoperiod. The Siberian tiger appears to be a polyestrous seasonal breeder and an induced ovulator whose breeding season may be synchronized by photoperiod.     

Application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of the Amur tiger (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Panthera tigris altaica</Emphasis>)

The possibility of application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of Amur tigers has been analyzed. The possibility of obtaining information about the size and structure of a home range, discerning the home range core areas, seasonal changes in the use of space by tigers, and collecting detailed data on animals’ activity and characteristics of the use of different elements of landscape and terrain has been demonstrated. In contrast to VHF transmitters, satellite collars allow tigers to be tracked even in the cases of very long travels.