Instruments for transnasal brain removal during embalming by the ancient Egyptians

From the Mook—Collection in Munich 81 skulls and 7 complete heads of mummies found around Thebes and Abydos and dating from 1500–1000 BC were examined by fiberendoscope and operation microscope. Especially the nasal cavities and the ethmoidal perforations were studied through which the ancient moidal perforations were studied through which the ancient Egyptian embalmers removed the brain in the process of mummification. In many skulls these ethmoidal perforations had been nicely and meticulously prepared and we called in question whether this could be achieved merely by means of a metal hook as been described by Herodotus. We saw four different sites of the artificial foramina in the ethmoid. 22 perforations were symmetrically located in the ethmoid, 12 predominantly in the right ethmoid, 49 prediminantly in the left ethmoid and 5 perforations in the sphenoid. We present a new concept about the transnasal approach to the cranium, based on experiments in fresh cadavers in which we were able to remove the brain through the nostril by means of a simple rod of bamboo partially wrapped with moistened linen bandages. This technique of brain removal could during the process of mummification.     

Borate in mummification salts and bones from Pharaonic Egypt

Mummification processes in Pharaonic Egypt were successful using sodium salts. Quite frequently sodium concentrations in mummified bones ranged from 300 to 4000 micromol/g. In the search for an effective inorganic conservation compound our choice fell on boric acid. The possible presence of borate in mummification salts used in Pharaonic Egypt was of special interest both historically and biochemically. In two salt samples, one from the embalming material of Tutankhamen (18th dynasty, 1336-1327 BC) and the second from Deir el-Bahari (25th dynasty, 700-600 BC) borate was found, amounting to 2.1+/-0.2 and 3.9+/-0.1 micromol/g, respectively. In five of the examined bone fragments from the Junker excavation at Giza (Old Kingdom) similar borate concentrations i.e., 1.2 micromol borate/g bone were seen. It must be emphasized that the usual borate content of contemporary autopsy is far below the detection limit. The elevated borate content in both mummification salt and ancient bone samples support the suggestion that borate-containing salt had been used. There is a striking correlation of both borate concentration and alkaline phosphatase activity. When both sodium salts and borate were essentially absent no activity at all was detectable. With increasing borate concentrations the enzyme activity rises significantly. Attributable to the distinct biochemistry of the tetrahydroxyborate anion it was of interest whether or not borate may stabilize alkaline phosphatase, an important and richly abundant bone enzyme. This enzyme was chosen, as it is known to survive more than 4000 years of mummification. In the presence of borate oligomeric species of this zinc-magnesium-glycoprotein at 400,000 Da became detectable. Attributable to this borate-dependent stabilization of the enzyme molecule a significant temperature resistant increase of the enzymic activity was measured in the presence of up to 2.5 mM borate.     

Technical note: Terahertz imaging of ancient mummies and bone

Ancient mummified soft‐tissues are a unique source to study the evolution of disease. Diagnostic imaging of such historic tissues is of foremost interest in paleoanthropology or paleopathology, with conventional x‐ray and computed tomography (CT) being the gold‐standard. Longer wavelength radiation in the far‐infrared or Terahertz region allows diagnostic close‐to‐surface tissue differentiation of bone morphology while being harmless to human cells. The aim of this study is to show the feasibility and the morpho‐diagnostic impact of THz imaging of historic remains. Images of an artificially embalmed ancient Egyptian human mummy hand, an artificially embalmed ancient Egyptian mummified fish and a macerated human lumbar vertebra were obtained by THz‐pulse imaging and compared with conventional X‐ray and CT images. Although conventional x‐ray imaging provides higher spatial resolution, we found that THz‐imaging is well‐suited for the investigation of ancient mummified soft tissue and embalming‐related substances / wrappings. In particular, bone and cartilaginous structures can be well differentiated from surrounding soft‐tissues and bandage‐wrappings by THz imaging. Furthermore, THz‐pulse imaging also measures the time‐delay of the pulsed signal when passing through the sample, which provides supplementary information on the optical density of the sample that is not obtained by X‐ray and CT. Terahertz radiation provides a completely non‐invasive diagnostic imaging modality for historic dry specimens. We anticipate this modality also to be used for detection of hidden objects in historic samples such as funerary amulets still in situ in wrapped mummies, as well as potentially for the identification of spectral signatures from chemical substances, e.g., in embalming essences.. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Brief communication: Twentieth-century replication of an Egyptian mummy: Implications for paleopathology

Replication in a modern human cadaver of ancient Egyptian mummification focused on tools used by ancient Egyptian embalmers, the use of natron (a mixture of sodium carbonate, bicarbonate, and chloride) in the preparation of the mummy, surgical procedures in the removal of the viscera and brain, and histologic examination of the viscera. The first three areas have been reported separately (Brier and Wade [1997] ZAS 124:89–100). In this paper, we demonstrate a degree of histologic preservation comparable to that seen in Egyptian mummies, indicating the effectiveness of ancient mummification and that the histologic appearance of such mummies is little altered by the passage of millennia. Am J Phys Anthropol 107:417–420, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

First paleoparasitological study of an embalming rejects jar found in Saqqara,Egypt

For the first time, a jar of embalming rejects was studied in search for helminth parasite eggs. This kind of jar was used to put discarded material by Egyptian embalmers during mummification process. Ascaris lumbricoides and Taenia saginata eggs were found in the linen and strip fragment contents of the jar, dated of 2,715-2,656 years ago.     

Informal intercropping of legumes with cereals? A re-assessment of clover abundance in ancient Egyptian cereal processing by-product assemblages: archaeobotanical investigations at Khentkawes town,Giza (2300–2100 <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>)

The possibility that legumes were specifically cultivated as a separate fodder crop in ancient Egypt has been inferred, usually on the basis of abundance of both legume seeds and or dung in charred macro-botanical samples, combined with a lack of wood charcoal; the implication being that a scarcity of wood led to the use of dung as fuel, and that the legumes in the assemblage derive from livestock which had been fed with cultivated fodder. The archaeobotanical remains from excavations at the Old Kingdom ‘Khentkawes town’ (2300–2100 bc) on the Giza plateau in Egypt contained an abundance of legumes, but also much wood charcoal, and preservation of many fragile and ‘green’ seeds and plant parts. This assemblage has led to questioning of the theory of specific fodder cultivation in Pharaonic Egypt. In this article, alternative interpretations of legume-rich assemblages of cereal processing by-products are investigated. Intercropping of legumes with cereals is one of the most widespread and effective methods of improving crop value and security, and fodder/forage quality. Analysis of this assemblage has led to a hypothesis that Trifolium sp. and other ‘weeds’ may well have been viewed as integral plants within ancient Egyptian cereal fields, due to an awareness of the benefits of intercropping legumes with cereals—as opposed to having been specifically cultivated as a monocrop.     

Evidence based palaeopathology: Meta-analysis of Pubmed-listed scientific studies on pre-Columbian,South American mummies

The aim of this study was to review all Pubmed^®-listed palaeopathological studies performed on pre-Columbian South American mummies. A total of 61 studies were found (1977–2005). Review criteria included e.g. method of examination, method of mummification, palaeopathological diagnoses and individual age of mummies as well as dating, which ranged from 7500 to 500 years BP, mainly (if reported) originating from the Chiribaya and Chinchorro cultures. The average age of the 99 individually reported mummies was about 25 years. Only six studies included computed tomography, thirteen studies used classical radiography as an examination method. Three studies analysed parasite related diseases, especially caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. Among all of the reported infectious diseases (n = 9), there were seven studies presenting cases of tuberculosis. The results were also compared inter-culturally. In 61 studies (37 epidemiological and 24 case reports) more than 6400 mummified individuals were analysed. By contrast, meta-analytic data for ancient Egyptian mummies ( Zweifel et al., 2009) included about 3000 analysed individuals in 131 studies (85 case reports and 46 epidemiological studies). In general, ancient Egyptian mummies were shown to be intentionally mummified, whereas the Pre-Columbian American mummies showed a great diversity of spontaneous mummification. However, ritualistic mummification methods were also practised (n = 2). This study's results shall assist to improve evidence-based research in palaeopathology.     

Symbolism in prehistoric man

The aptitude for symbolization, characteristic of man, is revealed not only in artistic representations and funerary practices. It is exhibited by every manifestation of human activity or representation of natural phenomena that assumes or refers to a meaning. We can recognize functional symbolism (tool-making, habitative or food technology), social symbolism, (language and social communication) and spiritual symbolism (funerary practices and artistic expressions). On the basis of these concepts, research into symbolism in prehistoric man allows us to recognize forms of symbolism already in the manifestations of the most ancient humans, starting with Homo habilis (or rudolfensis). Toolmaking, social organization and organization of the territory are oriented toward survival and the life of the family group. They attest to symbolic behaviors and constitute symbolic systems by means of which man expresses himself, lives and transmits his symbolic world. The diverse forms of symbolism are discussed with reference to the different phases of prehistoric humanity.     

Flax in Sweden: the archaeobotanical, archaeological and historical evidence

The earliest recorded evidence of flax being cultivated in Sweden is from the end of the Bronze Age/beginning of the Iron Age. Later, from ca. a.d. 1100 and onwards, flax became an economically important plant in the country, and during the 12th to 16th centuries there was a substantial increase in the Swedish export of linen to other parts of Europe. Alongside its extensive cultivation, a set of cultural traditions and rituals was eventually built up around flax. The objective of this article is to draw an outline of the history of flax cultivation in Sweden and to present the relevant prehistoric and historic source material. A point of discussion will be the different roles that fibre flax and oil flax played over a long period of time and the problem of seed corn import for the development of domestic fibre flax in the country. The study is based on the prehistoric archaeobotanical record, mainly charred seeds from the Swedish Iron Age (ca. 500 b.c.–a.d. 1050), the archaeological record, documentary evidence and folklore.     

Unexplained findings in anthropologic study material from Egypt. Addenda to Herodotus' "Historian", Lib. II, 86-88 and Egyptian "Sparagmos"?]

The authors report on recently excavated mummified human remains from Buto and Minshat Abu Omar in the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt). There is evidence that besides the conventional mummification techniques described for example by Herodotus rather invasive methods have been applied, i.e. maceration and dissection of the soft tissue, partly followed by modelling the skeleton with a thin layer of mud. This practise remembers of certain mutilated anthropological material of predynastic origin discovered towards the end of the last century by W.M. Flinders Petrie, which additionally seems to show significant parallels to ancient Egyptian mythological and religious texts (Pyramid texts, Coffin texts, Book of the Dead, etc.). Probably the presented findings, dated between 700 B.C. and 400 A.D., must be explained as a local rebirth of an archaic but non-specific Egyptian custom, preceding the inauguration of mummification in Egypt. The main task of this paper is to introduce important new material and to ask those missions also involved in archaeological fieldwork in Egypt for paying special attention to this subject.     

Cremation practices coexisting at the S’Illot des Porros Necropolis during the Second Iron Age in the Balearic Islands (Spain)

The necropolis of S’Illot des Porros, one of the most important prehistoric funerary sites of the Balearic Islands (Spain), was in use from the VIth and Vth century BCE until the Ist century CE. Located in a funerary area which contains two cementeries and one sanctuary, this site is constituted by three funerary chambers named A, B and C, respectively. Investigations on all the human burnt bone remains of the chambers, carried out mainly by the X-ray diffraction and supplemented in some cases by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy pointed to the simultaneous use of inhumation and cremation funerary rites, probably due to existing social differences.In particular, it was argued that the chambers were differentiated, i.e., B was dedicated to inhumations and A to cremations, the cremations found in chamber B very likely being a result of a cleaning-purification of the burial area. Moreover, chamber C, which is the most ancient (IVth century BCE) and with the largest number of inhumed remains, contains the smallest number of remains that were exposed to fire and just in one case it seems possible to attribute a genuine high-temperature cremation.     

Evidence-based palaeopathology: Meta-analysis of PubMed-listed scientific studies on ancient Egyptian mummies

There is a plethora of published scientific studies on ancient Egyptian mummies. Surprisingly, hitherto there is no systematic review of this research, which would help to assess the quality of this vast body of published literature and thus to increase “evidence” in palaeopathological research. The aim of this study was to review all PubMed-listed scientific studies performed on Ancient Egyptian mummies. A total of 131 studies were found in the database for the selected time period, 1977-2005. Our “meta-analysis” showed that the number of publications per year varies enormously. The majority of mummies examined date to the third intermediate and Ptolemaic periods; data from other time periods were lacking. Identification of the cause of death and ¹⁴C-dating of the mummy or funeral goods were rarely addressed. There was a tendency towards an increased use of non-invasive examination methods in more modern times. Our meta-analysis addressed both scientific content (e.g. palaeopathological findings/examination methods) and publication issues (e.g. location of the first author or year of publication) in these studies. Based on our experience, we recommend some minimum publication standards for palaeopathologic studies on ancient mummies, which shall improve evidence-based research in palaeopathology in general.     

The botanical aspects of ancient Egyptian embalming and burial

The ancient Egyptian art of embalming, a highly developed process, involved many plants and plant products. Thirty-one genera of plants have been mentioned by various writers in the operations of embalming, cosmetic application, wrapping and coffin construction. The materials employed and methods of use have interested scholars of all periods. Herodotus gave the earliest account of the various aspects of embalming.     

Towards an Absolute Chronology for the Aegean Iron Age: New Radiocarbon Dates from Lefkandi,Kalapodi and Corinth

The relative chronology of the Aegean Iron Age is robust. It is based on minute stylistic changes in the Submycenaean, Protogeometric and Geometric styles and their sub-phases. Yet, the absolute chronology of the time-span between the final stages of Late Helladic IIIC in the late second millennium BCE and the archaic colonization of Italy and Sicily toward the end of the 8^th century BCE lacks archaeological contexts that can be directly related to events carrying absolute dates mentioned in Egyptian/Near Eastern historical sources, or to well-dated Egyptian/Near Eastern rulers. The small number of radiocarbon dates available for this time span is not sufficient to establish an absolute chronological sequence. Here we present a new set of short-lived radiocarbon dates from the sites of Lefkandi, Kalapodi and Corinth in Greece. We focus on the crucial transition from the Submycenaean to the Protogeometric periods. This transition is placed in the late 11^th century BCE according to the Conventional Aegean Chronology and in the late 12^th century BCE according to the High Aegean Chronology. Our results place it in the second half of the 11^th century BCE.     

Gut Microbiome of an 11th Century A.D. Pre-Columbian Andean Mummy

The process of natural mummification is a rare and unique process from which little is known about the resulting microbial community structure. In the present study, we characterized the microbiome of paleofeces, and ascending, transverse and descending colon of an 11^th century A.D. pre-Columbian Andean mummy by 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing and metagenomics. Firmicutes were the most abundant bacterial group, with Clostridium spp. comprising up to 96.2% of the mummified gut, while Turicibacter spp. represented 89.2% of the bacteria identified in the paleofeces. Microbiome profile of the paleofeces was unique when compared to previously characterized coprolites that did not undergo natural mummification. We identified DNA sequences homologous to Clostridium botulinum, Trypanosoma cruzi and human papillomaviruses (HPVs). Unexpectedly, putative antibiotic-resistance genes including beta-lactamases, penicillin-binding proteins, resistance to fosfomycin, chloramphenicol, aminoglycosides, macrolides, sulfa, quinolones, tetracycline and vancomycin, and multi-drug transporters, were also identified. The presence of putative antibiotic-resistance genes suggests that resistance may not necessarily be associated with a selective pressure of antibiotics or contact with European cultures. Identification of pathogens and antibiotic-resistance genes in ancient human specimens will aid in the understanding of the evolution of pathogens as a way to treat and prevent diseases caused by bacteria, microbial eukaryotes and viruses.     

Ancient mtDNA Analysis of Early 16th Century Caribbean Cattle Provides Insight into Founding Populations of New World Creole Cattle Breeds

The Columbian Exchange resulted in a widespread movement of humans, plants and animals between the Old and New Worlds. The late 15^th to early 16^th century transfer of cattle from the Iberian Peninsula and Canary Islands to the Caribbean laid the foundation for the development of American creole cattle (Bos taurus) breeds. Genetic analyses of modern cattle from the Americas reveal a mixed ancestry of European, African and Indian origins. Recent debate in the genetic literature centers on the ‘African’ haplogroup T1 and its subhaplogroups, alternatively tying their origins to the initial Spanish herds, and/or from subsequent movements of taurine cattle through the African slave trade. We examine this problem through ancient DNA analysis of early 16^th century cattle bone from Sevilla la Nueva, the first Spanish colony in Jamaica. In spite of poor DNA preservation, both T3 and T1 haplogroups were identified in the cattle remains, confirming the presence of T1 in the earliest Spanish herds. The absence, however, of “African-derived American” haplotypes (AA/T1c1a1) in the Sevilla la Nueva sample, leaves open the origins of this sub-haplogroup in contemporary Caribbean cattle.     

Holocene Human Footprints in North America

Reports of human footprints from North American archaeological sites are summarized and described. Although some human footprints have been claimed to be of Pleistocene and earlier ages, the earliest authenticated prints in America north of Mexico, as distinct from Central or South America, date to the Holocene. The earliest of these prints is at least 5,070 years old, and the youngest are late prehistoric period, only about 400 years old. Footprint sites are reported in the U.S. Southeast, Southwest, and California. Activities indicated by ancient North American human footprints include the mundane, such as daily tasks in a riparian zone and domestic behaviors inside a habitation. Footprints were also left by prehistoric peoples undertaking more esoteric activities deep in cave interiors, including exploration, mineral extraction, and ritual.     

Environmental Roots of the Late Bronze Age Crisis

The Late Bronze Age world of the Eastern Mediterranean, a rich linkage of Aegean, Egyptian, Syro-Palestinian, and Hittite civilizations, collapsed famously 3200 years ago and has remained one of the mysteries of the ancient world since the event’s retrieval began in the late 19^th century AD/CE. Iconic Egyptian bas-reliefs and graphic hieroglyphic and cuneiform texts portray the proximate cause of the collapse as the invasions of the “Peoples-of-the-Sea” at the Nile Delta, the Turkish coast, and down into the heartlands of Syria and Palestine where armies clashed, famine-ravaged cities abandoned, and countrysides depopulated. Here we report palaeoclimate data from Cyprus for the Late Bronze Age crisis, alongside a radiocarbon-based chronology integrating both archaeological and palaeoclimate proxies, which reveal the effects of abrupt climate change-driven famine and causal linkage with the Sea People invasions in Cyprus and Syria. The statistical analysis of proximate and ultimate features of the sequential collapse reveals the relationships of climate-driven famine, sea-borne-invasion, region-wide warfare, and politico-economic collapse, in whose wake new societies and new ideologies were created.