The South to North Variation of Norovirus Epidemics from 2006–07 to 2008–09 in Japan

Background

Norovirus (NoV) is a major cause of gastroenteritis during the autumn and winter seasons in Japan as well as in other temperate climate regions. Most outbreaks are thought to occur by secondary attacks through person-to-person infection by fecal-oral route. Severe cases are found in young children or patients with chronic diseases. Clarifying the patterns of epidemic diffusion is important for considering effective monitoring and surveillance as well as possible prevention.

Methods

We considered the predominant viral genotype from the laboratory result obtained from Infectious Agents Surveillance Report (IASR) of National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID). We investigated the increase of NoV cases nationwide for the 2006–07 to 2008–09 seasons using sentinel gastroenteritis data collected from about 3000 pediatric clinics on National Epidemiological Surveillance of Infectious Diseases (NESID) acquired from the kriging method in the geographic information system (GIS).

Results

During these three seasons, the majority of the detected virus was GII.4, which ranged from 60.4 to 88.9%. The number of cases (per sentinel site) at the peak week was 22.81 in the 2006–07 season and it decreased in the following seasons. NoV cases began to increase earlier in the southern areas and gradually extended into the northern areas, similarly, over the seasons. The average period from when the increase of cases was detected in the southern area to when it reached the northern area was 12.7 weeks.

Conclusion

The decrease of the number of sentinel cases at the peak week may suggest the development of herd immunity after a period of high prevalence. Although the NoV epidemic is thought to be associated with cold weather, its cases first increased in the southern area with relatively warm temperature, indicating there are other climate factors involved. Geographic study using the sentinel data could enhance the monitoring and surveillance of and preparedness against epidemics.     

Bird numbers in relation to grazing on a grouse moor from 1957–61 to 1988–98

Birds were counted before and after heavy grazing on a Scottish grouse moor. Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus, Lapwings Vanellus vanellus and Curlews Numenius arquata increased where high sheep stocks and grass seeding converted much ling Calluna vulgaris to smooth grass, but not where heath remained. A heathy part that held many gamebirds in 1957–61 but later became short grass had no Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix or Grey Partridge Perdix perdix in 1989–98. The study area held many Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria in 1957–61 but none in 1988–98.     

Ostrich recruitment dynamics in relation to rainfall in the Mara–Serengeti ecosystem

Animal population dynamics can be driven by rainfall variability through its influence on habitat suitability, availability and nutritional sufficiency of forage. To understand how rainfall influences ostriches, we related changes in ostrich recruitment in the Mara–Serengeti ecosystem to rainfall. Over a 15-year period, monthly counts of ostriches were made and the number of hatchlings, chicks, hens, cocks, and the size of the groups in which they occurred were recorded. Breeding was bimodal with a major peak in February and a minor peak in October. Ostriches formed larger groups in the wet (4.41 ± 5.17 (mean ± SD), range 1–72, n = 672 groups) than in the dry (2.49 ± 2.70, range 1–29, n = 398) season. The number of hatchlings plus chicks per hen increased across the duration of the study period and with increasing annual and early wet-season rainfall, affecting forage availability and quality. Recruitment was highest at intermediate levels of the five-year average of the late wet-season rainfall, implying that a change in long-term rainfall and habitat suitability would move recruitment away from the optimum. Outstanding adaptations to life in arid environments could make ostriches more resilient than sympatric ungulates if food shortages and water stress became more frequent because of widening climatic variability.     

Evolution of host resistance to parasite infection in the snail–schistosome–human system

The evolutionary strategies that emerge within populations can be dictated by numerous factors, including interactions with other species. In this paper, we explore the consequences of such a scenario using a host-parasite system of human concern. By analyzing the dynamical behaviors of a mathematical model we investigate the evolutionary outcomes resulting from interactions between Schistosoma mansoni and its snail and human hosts. The model includes two types of snail hosts representing resident and mutant types. Using this approach, we focus on establishing evolutionary stable strategies under conditions where snail hosts express different life-histories and when drug treatment is applied to an age-structured population of human hosts. Results from this work demonstrate that the evolutionary trajectories of host-parasite interactions can be varied, and at times, counter-intuitive, based on parasite virulence, host resistance, and drug treatment.     

Trehalose–Water–Salt Interactions Related to the Stability of β-Galactosidase in Supercooled Media

The conservation of desirable properties in foods and ingredients is often based on the maintenance of the amorphous metastable properties of the systems. Enzymes may be stabilized by drying in saccharide matrices, but a second excipient is generally required to improve sugar protective effects. The effect of electrolytes on the thermophysical properties of sugar systems is of special interest because of their major influence on water structure and their possible interactions with biomolecules. Salts affect the kinetics of very important changes in sugar systems such as crystallization. The purpose of the present work was to analyze fungal β-galactosidase stability in supercooled systems of trehalose-containing electrolytes (water soluble acetates, citrates, and chlorides of magnesium and potassium). The degree of sugar crystallization was also related to enzyme stability. Potassium citrate and acetate improved enzyme stability during freeze-drying and thermal treatment of samples at water activity (a _w) of 0.22. However, trehalose crystallization inhibition at a _w = 0.43 (which was about 50–60%, related to the system without salt) impaired enzyme protection. Certain salts may act retarding sugar crystallization, but in the presence of salts, trehalose crystallization is even more critical because the enzyme is confined in a highly salt-concentrated region. Thus, crystallization inhibition by sugar–salt combinations should be carefully conducted. Santagapita, Research Fellow, CONICET, Argentina. Buera, Member of CONICET, Argentina. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Subspecialty Differences in Responding to Patient Death–Comparing Cardiologists With Oncologists

Cardiac deaths are more likely to be unanticipated than cancer deaths by patients, their families, and their physicians. We hypothesized that differing physician attitudes toward dying patients may affect the degree of expectation of death. To evaluate differences in attitudes and behaviors among subspecialists, we surveyed a randomly selected population of California subspecialists; 44 of 136 (32%) of cardiologists and 91 of 167 (55%) of oncologists responded. Oncologists experienced three times as many deaths as cardiologists and reported having discussed code status more often with patients who died. Cardiologists'' patients'' deaths were more often unexpected and occurred more frequently in intensive care units. In addition, their patients were more likely to be given cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Oncologists reported being more comfortable dealing with dying patients and having less desire to avoid them. When presented with patient scenarios, however, cardiologists'' and oncologists'' responses were similar when discussing and estimating prognosis and likelihood of successful therapy.     

Delayed response in a plant–pollinator system to experimental grassland fragmentation

The fragmentation of natural habitat is considered to be a major threat to biodiversity. Decreasing habitat quality and quantity caused by fragmentation may lead to a disruption of plant–pollinator interactions and to a reduction in sexual reproduction in plant species. We conducted a 6-year field experiment to investigate the effects of small-scale fragmentation on plant–pollinator interactions and genetic diversity in the self-compatible Betonica officinalis. We examined the abundance and composition of pollinators, the foraging behaviour of bumblebees and the performance, outcrossing rate and genetic diversity of B. officinalis after 2 and 6 years in experimentally fragmented nutrient-poor, calcareous grassland in the northern Swiss Jura mountains. Fragments of different size (2.25 and 20.25 m²) were isolated by a 5-m-wide strip of frequently mown vegetation. Control plots of corresponding size were situated in adjacent undisturbed grassland. Experimental grassland fragmentation altered the composition of B. officinalis pollinators and reduced their flower visitation rate. Furthermore, the foraging behaviour of bumblebees was changed in the fragments. After 6 years of fragmentation seed weight was higher in fragments than in control plots. However, the densities of B. officinalis rosettes and inflorescences, plant height and inflorescence length were not affected by fragmentation. The outcrossing frequency of B. officinalis growing in fragments was reduced by 15% after 2 years and by 33% after 6 years of experimental fragmentation. This resulted in a significant reduction of the genetic diversity in seedlings emerging in fragments after 6 years. Our study shows that small-scale habitat fragmentation can disturb the interaction between B. officinalis and pollinators resulting in a reduced outcrossing frequency and genetic diversity in plants growing in fragments. However, the response to fragmentation was considerably delayed. This finding strengthens the claim for long-term field experiments with proper replications and controls to assess delayed effects of habitat fragmentation.     

Zinc–gene interaction related to inflammatory/immune response in ageing

The pivotal role played by zinc-gene interaction in affecting some relevant cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-alpha) and heat shock proteins (HSP70-2) in ageing, successful ageing (nonagenarians) and the most common age-related diseases, such as atherosclerosis and infections, is now recognized. The polymorphisms of genes codifying proteins related to the inflammation are predictive on one hand in longevity, on the other hand they are associated with atherosclerosis or severe infections. Since the health life-span has a strong genetic component, which in turn also affected by nutritional factors like zinc, the association of these polymorphisms with innate immune response, zinc ion bioavailability and Metallothioneins (MT) homeostasis is an useful tool to unravel the role played by zinc-gene interactions in longevity, especially due to the inability of MT in zinc release in ageing and chronic inflammation. In ageing, this last fact leads to depressed innate immune response for host defence. In contrast, in very old age the inflammation is lower with subsequent more zinc ion bioavailability, less MT gene expression and satisfactory innate immunity. Therefore, the zinc-gene (IL-6, TNF-alpha, Hsp70-2) interactions, via MT homeostasis, are crucial to achieve successful ageing.     

A novel dRYBP–SCF complex functions to inhibit apoptosis in Drosophila

A balanced response to intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic signals is crucial to support homeostatic development and animal survival. Regulation of activation and inhibition of apoptotic pathways involves diverse mechanisms including protein ubiquitylation to control expression levels of apoptotic factors. Here we report that drosophila Ring and YY1 Binding Protein (dRYBP) protein interacts both genetically and biochemically with the E3 ubiquitin ligase SKPA, dCULLIN, F-box (SCF) complex to synergistically inhibit apoptosis in Drosophila. Further, we show that the loss of skpA function activates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis and down-regulates the levels of expression of the anti-apoptotic DIAP1 protein. Accordingly, the apoptosis induced by inactivation of skpA and dRYBP is rescued by loss of function of the pro-apoptotic gene reaper and overexpression of DIAP1. Of interest, we also find that high levels of SKPA protein rescue the wing phenotype induced by overexpression of Reaper protein. Finally, we demonstrate that overexpression of SKPA inhibits both developmental and radiation-induced apoptosis. We propose that the function of the dRYBP–SCF complex in the inhibition of apoptosis might possibly be to control the levels of the pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins most likely by promoting their ubiquitylation and consequently, proteasomal degradation. Given the evolutionary conservation of the dRYBP and the SCF proteins, our results suggest that their mammalian homologs may function in balancing cell survival versus cell death during normal and pathological development.     

Review of recent developments in GC–MS approaches to metabolomics-based research

Background

Metabolomics aims to identify the changes in endogenous metabolites of biological systems in response to intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This is accomplished through untargeted, semi-targeted and targeted based approaches. Untargeted and semi-targeted methods are typically applied in hypothesis-generating investigations (aimed at measuring as many metabolites as possible), while targeted approaches analyze a relatively smaller subset of biochemically important and relevant metabolites. Regardless of approach, it is well recognized amongst the metabolomics community that gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is one of the most efficient, reproducible and well used analytical platforms for metabolomics research. This is due to the robust, reproducible and selective nature of the technique, as well as the large number of well-established libraries of both commercial and ‘in house’ metabolite databases available.

Aim of review

This review provides an overview of developments in GC–MS based metabolomics applications, with a focus on sample preparation and preservation techniques. A number of chemical derivatization (in-time, in-liner, offline and microwave assisted) techniques are also discussed. Electron impact ionization and a summary of alternate mass analyzers are highlighted, along with a number of recently reported new GC columns suited for metabolomics. Lastly, multidimensional GC–MS and its application in environmental and biomedical research is presented, along with the importance of bioinformatics.

Key scientific concepts of review

The purpose of this review is to both highlight and provide an update on GC–MS analytical techniques that are common in metabolomics studies. Specific emphasis is given to the key steps within the GC–MS workflow that those new to this field need to be aware of and the common pitfalls that should be looked out for when starting in this area.

     

European trends in cervical cancer mortality in relation to national screening programs, 1985–2014

BackgroundCervical cancer is the fourth leading oncological cause of death in women. Variable trends in cervical cancer mortality have been observed across Europe, despite the widespread adoption of screening programs. This variability has previously been attributed to heterogeneity in the quality of screening programs.MethodsAge-standardized cervical cancer death rates for European countries between 1985 and 2014 were analyzed using Joinpoint regression. Countries were dichotomized based on year of implementation and population invitational coverage of national population-based cervical cancer screening programs. National cervical cancer mortality trends during the study period were compared based on this classification.ResultsDecreasing trends in mortality were observed in all European countries with the specific exceptions of Bulgaria, Greece and Latvia. The highest rates of cervical cancer mortality throughout the study period were in Romania (16.0-14.9/100,000) and the lowest rates in Italy (1.4-1.2/100,000). The greatest percentage decline in mortality was observed in the United Kingdom and the greatest absolute reduction in mortality was seen in Hungary. European countries which implemented a national population-based cervical cancer screening program prior to 2009 demonstrated greater improvements in cervical cancer mortality outcomes compared to those that did not (p = 0.016).ConclusionCervical cancer mortality is improving in most European countries; however, substantial variation remains. Trends in mortality were associated with the time of implementation of national population-based cervical screening programs.     

Phytoplankton response to changed nutrient level in Lake Peipsi (Estonia) in 1992–2001

To clarify the sediment yield processes following a disturbance by a forest fire in a mountainous catchment, and considering the hydrological and geomorphological processes in the headwater, we measured bedload sediment yield at rainfall events in disturbed and secondary forest catchments in the western part of Japan. The three catchments were under different hydrogeological conditions. The IK, TB and TY catchments were disturbed by forest fires in 2000, 1994, and 1978, respectively. In the IK catchment, although runoff response to rainfall was fastest with high peak flows, the catchment also had the highest base flow. Moreover, the annual sediment yield there was about ten times as high as in the other two catchments, and it was found that there was a steep linear curve in the relationship between precipitation and bedload sediment yield. This is thought to be caused by overland flow generation following water repellency on the slopes, and by the accumulated sediment that forms the thick soil layer on the valley bottom. On the other hand, in the TB catchment runoff experienced high peak flows at rainfall events and low base flows, and there was a gradual linear curve in the precipitation–sediment yield relationship. This might be the result of there being a thin soil layer on the hillslope and on the valley bottom because of successive erosion after the fire. In the TY catchment, runoff had a low peak flow at rainfall events and a high base flow; and the bedload sediment yield increased exponentially with increasing precipitation. Therefore, sediment yield in the TB catchment was more than that in the TY during storm events with precipitation of less than 100 mm, whereas it was the opposite during heavier rainfalls. It indicates that there is a thick soil layer on the slope and a thin soil layer on the valley bottom in the TY catchment following the recovering of vegetation, and that the sediment yield process predominates only during big rainfall events, only then does subsurface flow generate.     

Superoxide activates mTOR–eIF4E–Bax route to induce enhanced apoptosis in leukemic cells

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a central kinase that regulates cell survival, proliferation and translation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are second messengers with potential in manipulating cellular signaling. Here we report that two ROS generating phytochemicals, hydroxychavicol and curcumin synergize in leukemic cells in inducing enhanced apoptosis by independently activating both mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) (JNK and P³⁸) and mTOR pathways. Low level transient ROS generated after co-treatment with these phytochemicals led to activation of these two pathways. Both mTOR and MAPK pathways played important roles in co-treatment-induced apoptosis, by knocking down either mTOR or MAPKs inhibited apoptosis. Activation of mTOR, as evident from phosphorylation of its downstream effector eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1, led to release of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) which was subsequently phosphorylated by JNK leading to translation of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bad without affecting the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xl. Our data suggest that mTOR and MAPK pathways converge at eIF4E in co-treatment-induced enhanced apoptosis and provide mechanistic insight for the role of mTOR activation in apoptosis.     

Variation in the methods leads to variation in the interpretation of biodiversity–ecosystem multifunctionality relationships

生物多样性常常和生态系统多功能性(生态系统同时提供多个生态系统功能的能力)正相关。然而,生物多样性与生态系统多功能性的关系是否依赖于生态系统功能的数目有诸多争议。其中,生物多样性对生态系统多功能性的影响或许不随生态系统功能数目的变化而变化,或者随生态系统功能数目的增多而增强。我们期望通过研究不同生态系统多功能性指数的统计原理来解决这些争议。 我们使用了模型模拟和一系列来自不同空间尺度(从局域到全球)和不同生物群系(温带和高寒草地、森林和干旱地)的经验数据。我们回顾了量化生态系统多功能性的三种方法,包括平均值法、加和法和阈值法。我们发现随着生态系统功能数目的增加,生物多样性与生态系统多功能性的关系要么不变,要么增强。这些结果可由平均和加和的多功能性指数的统计原理来解释。具体来讲,当利用生态系统功能的平均值计算多功能性指数时,由于多样性对多功能性的效应等于多样性对单个生态系统功能效应的平均值,所以不会随生态系统功能数目的变化而变化。同样的道理,当利用单个生态系统的加和值计算多功能性指数时,多样性的效应会随着生态系统功能数目的增加而增强。我们提出了一个改进的多功能性指数,将平均或加和多功能性指数转化为标准化的多功能性指数, 以便于对不同研究的结果进行比较。此外,我们提出了基于变量数值范围的标准化方法来解决阈值法的数学假象问题(多样性效应随生态系统功能数目的增加而增强)。我们的研究结果表明,量化多功能性指数的方法不同,结果也不同。因此,有必要加深对不同方法数理基础的理解。而标准化的多功能性指数为比较不同研究中的生物多样性与生态系统多功能性的关系提供了有效的方法。     

Primate Tales: Using Literature to Understand Changes in Human–Primate Relations

Primate species, by and large, are culturally significant icons across their habitat. One of the more prominent expressions of this lies in the revered status of macaques and langurs in South and Southeast Asia, largely because of their religious status in Hinduism. People’s belief in these species’ sanctity often serves to protect them from physical harm or retaliation in conflict situations and thus strongly mediates their conservation. The nature of this interface has changed over the years of mutual interactions between the two groups. Trends in literature are useful markers of sociocultural developments in human life and reflect changes in human views with respect to the world around them. I investigated Tamil language poetical works from southern India to analyze people’s attitudes toward primates and changes in their views of primates over time. My findings suggest that sacredness was not a defining characteristic of human–primate relations in ancient times. The deification of monkeys occurred later and was largely driven by the growing popularity of Ramayana, the Hindu epic. The growing importance of religion in the daily lives of people and increasing urbanization subsequently led to the peripheralization of monkeys in people’s lives and narratives. Monkeys, once considered coinhabitants of a shared landscape, slowly began to be seen as animals with some human-like qualities that represent wild nature. The literary lens is thus a useful tool to map and understand changes in human perceptions of primate species over time and can be a powerful method in ethnoprimatology.