Toxicity of three acaricides to Tetranychus urticae (Tetranychidae: Acari) and Orius insidiosus (Anthocoridae: Hemiptera)

Management for twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, populations in peanut, Arachis hypogaea L., relies on acaricides. The outcomes of acaricide applications are most predictable when complete information on their toxicity and specificity is available. Specifically, the degrees to which acaricides impact different stages of T. urticae and natural enemies combined determine the overall efficacy of an acaricide application. The objectives of this study were to determine stage-specific direct and residual efficacies of three acaricides (fenpropathrin, etoxazole, and propargite) against T. urticae, and the direct and residual toxicity of the acaricides to Orius insidiosus (Say) adults. Direct toxicity of acaricides to T. urticae was measured on peanut cuttings. All acaricide treatments caused significant mortality to a mixed stage population of T. urticae, and mortality did not differ among the acaricides 7 d after treatment. When toxicity to eggs was tested, the proportion of eggs that hatched for all acaricide treatments was significantly lower than the control, with etoxazole and propargite causing 100% mortality. Exposure to acaricide residues caused < 30% mortality of T. urticae adults 1 and 2 d after treatment and was not significantly different from the control. Fenpropathrin and propargite caused 100% mortality and etoxazole caused > 50% mortality of O. insidious adults after direct exposure to the acaricides. Residual toxicity of acaricides to O. insidiosus adults varied but remained toxic to O. insidiosus longer than to T. urticae. Fenpropathrin had the longest residual effect on O. insidiosus adults, causing > 95% mortality after 14 d; etoxazole and propargite caused < 30% mortality after 14 d.     

Responses of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone. IV. Attachment stimulation of nymphs

Ten known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone (AAP) of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum, as well as a mixture of these components and extracts of prefed males of the two species, were tested as attachment stimulants for nymphs. Unfed nymphs were confined in linen bags on the ears of rabbits that had been treated with the test compounds, mixture or extracts; the numbers attached were recorded after 24 h. InA. hebraeum, attachment was induced by four compounds (2-methyl propanoic acid, methyl salicylate,o-nitrophenol and salicylaldehyde), the mixture and extracts from both species. InA. variegatum, attachment was induced by three compounds (methyl salicylate,o-nitrophenol and salicylaldehyde), the mixture and extracts from both species. Methyl salicylate ando-nitrophenol are primary components of the AAP of bothA. hebraeum andA. variegatum. 2-methyl propanoic acid is a species-specific attachment stimulant forA. hebraeum. Salicylaldehyde, a phenolic compound, is not a naturally occurring AAP component. Nymphs of both species respond to fewer attachment stimulants than the adults and, as shown by their respective host ranges, are less dependent on the AAP in the regulation of attachment than the adults.     

Comparison of the attachment rates of males of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to cattle,sheep and rabbits in the absence of aggregation-attachment pheromone

Losses in domestic ruminants caused by heartwater (Cowdria ruminantium infection) in Zimbabwe and Mozambique are greater when the vector isAmblyomma hebraeum than when the vector isA. variegatum. It has been suggested that the epidemiology of the disease may be influenced by the rates at which unfed adults of these two tick species attach to uninfested hosts (i.e. in the absence of the male-produced aggregation-attachment pheromone [AAP]). In this study we confined unfed males ofA. hebraeum andA. variegatum on uninfested cattle, sheep and rabbits and recorded their attachment rates. Males of both species attached more rapidly on cattle than on sheep or rabbits. Males ofA. hebraeum attached more rapidly than males ofA. variegatum on all three host species. The differences in the attachment rates between the two species were much greater on sheep and rabbits than on cattle. The findings suggest that in the absence of AAP, pioneer males of both tick species may attach to cattle, and pioneer males ofA. hebraeum may also attach to sheep. The differences in the attachment rates ofA. hebraeum andA. variegatum provide a possible explanation for observed differences in the epidemiology of heartwater associated with these two vector species.     

Detecting Resistance to Organophosphates and Carbamates in the Cattle Tick Boophilus Microplus, with a Propoxur-based Biochemical Test

Rapid and sensitive detection of resistance to insecticides in arthropods is needed. In the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus, resistance to a variety of acaricides is widespread. The most commonly used assay for resistance, the larval packet test, takes at least two, but generally six weeks for a one-host tick like B. microplus to complete and may take up to three months to complete for three-host ticks. Here we describe a test for resistance to organophosphate acaricides that can be used on larvae and adult ticks which takes less than 24 hours. The test measures the difference in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in homogenates of ticks in the presence and absence of propoxur, a carbamate acaricide. We found clear discrimination of organophosphate-susceptible and organophosphate-resistant adults with 100 M propoxur. AChE from susceptible ticks had almost no activity at this concentration of propoxur whereas AChE from resistant ticks had 67% of its potential activity. AChE from heterozygote ticks could also be distinguished from AChE from homozygous-susceptible and homozygous-resistant ticks. This is the first biochemical test for resistance to an acaricide. Rapid, sensitive tests like ours will allow resistance to organophosphates to be detected soon after it develops in the field, thus, the spread of resistance might be slowed and the useful life of acaricides extended.     

Responses of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone. III. Aggregation

Ten known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone (AAP) of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum, as well as mixtures of these components, extracts of prefed males and live prefed males, were tested as aggregation stimulants. In field assays, laboratory-reared unfed male and female ticks were released 20 cm downwind of CO₂/pheromone release sites; the numbers of ticks that aggregated at the release sites were recorded after 30 min. InA. variegatum, aggregation was induced by methyl salicylate,o-nitrophenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, phenylacetaldehyde and some mixtures containing these compounds; a strong aggregation response was induced by an extract of five prefed malesA. variegatum and a weak response was induced by an extract of 50 prefed males ofA. hebraeum. InA. hebraeum, aggregation was induced by phenylacetaldehyde, mixtures of compounds that included phenylacetaldehyde, extracts of 50 prefed males ofA. hebraeum orA. variegatum and 50 live prefed males ofA. hebraeum. InA. variegatum, aggregation was inhibited if compounds that do not occur naturally in the AAP of the species were included in mixtures. InA. hebraeum, phenylacetaldehyde appeared to act as an arrestant for ticks that had been attracted to release sites by other compounds.     

Responses of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone. II. Attachment stimulation

Nine known or potential components of the aggregation-attachment pheromone of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum were tested as attachment stimulants. Unfed adult male and female ticks were confined in linen bags on the ears of rabbits that had been treated with solutions of the test compounds; the numbers attached were recorded after 24 h. In both species, males attached more rapidly and more readily than females. InA. hebraeum, attachment of males was induced by eight compounds (benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, heptadecane, 2-methyl propanoic acid, methyl salicylate, o-nitrophenol and salicylaldehyde) and attachment of females by six compounds (benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2-methyl propanoic acid, o-nitrophenol and salicylaldehyde). InA. variegatum, attachment of males was induced by seven compounds (benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, heptadecane, methyl salicylate, o-nitrophenol and salicyladeehyde) and attachment of females by two compounds (methyl salicylate and o-nitrophenol). A mixture of the nine compounds and extracts of prefed males ofA. herbraeum andA. variegatum induced attachment in males of both species and in femaleA. hebraeum; in these tests, attachment of femaleA. variegatum was only induced by extracts of conspecific males.     

Interstadial variation in the attachment sites of Ixodes ricinus ticks on sheep

The spatial aggregation of ticks feeding on vertebrate hosts has been recognized for some time but, for hosts supporting more than one stage of the tick, observations of interstadial variation in the site of attachment have not previously been quantified. This study showed that all three parasitic stages of Ixodes ricinus ticks feeding on sheep attach most commonly to the hair-covered areas of the head and limbs while few ticks attach to the fleeced region of the body. However, significant differences were observed in the site of attachment of the three feeding stages of the tick. Larvae attached to distal limbs and rostral areas of the head and adult females attached to the proximal areas of the limbs and around the neck and ears, while nymphs attached in locations between the larvae and adults. The importance of the spatial aggregation of the ticks and interstadial variation in their distribution on the host, for the transmission of tick-borne pathogens and the epidemiology of the diseases they cause, is discussed. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Factors affecting the distributions of the ticks Amblyomma hebraeum and A. variegatum in Zimbabwe: implications of reduced acaricide usage

The ticks Amblyomma hebraeum and A. variegatum are the main vectors of heartwater, a disease of ruminants caused by Cowdria ruminantium, in the agricultural areas of Zimbabwe. At present, A. hebraeum is widely distributed in the dry southern lowveld, and occurs in at least seven foci in the higher rainfall highveld. Amblyomma variegatum occurs in the Zambezi valley and surrounding dry lowveld areas in the northwest. The distribution of A. hebraeum has changed considerably over the past 70 years, while that of A. variegatum appears to have remained fairly static. The distribution patterns of both species in Zimbabwe display anomalous features; the ticks occur in areas of lowest predicted climatic suitability for survival and development and in areas where the densities of cattle, the most important domestic host, are lowest. The only factor favouring the survival of the species in the lowveld habitats in which they occur is the presence of alternative wildlife hosts for the adult stage. Their absence from more climatically favourable highveld habitats appears to have been the result of intensive acaricide treatment of cattle over a long period and a historic absence of significant numbers of wildlife hosts. Eradication of A. hebraeum and A. variegatum by intensive acaricide treatment of cattle can be achieved in the absence of significant numbers of alternative hosts, because of the long attachment and feeding periods of the adults of these tick species. However, eradication becomes impossible when alternative hosts for the adult stage are present, because a pheromone emitted by attached males attracts the unfed nymphal and adult stages to infested hosts. The unfed ticks are not attracted to uninfested hosts, such as acaricide-treated cattle.Regular acaricide treatment of cattle is expensive and so, for economic reasons, the Government of Zimbabwe is no longer enforcing a policy of strict tick control. It is likely that reduced tick control will result in the spread of Amblyomma ticks to previously uninfested areas. Added to this, recent introductions of various wildlife species to highveld commercial farming areas have created conditions in which the ticks could become established in higher rainfall areas. Amblyomma hebraeum is more likely to spread than A. variegatum, because its adults parasitize a wider range of wildlife hosts (warthogs, medium to large-sized antelope, giraffe, buffalo and rhinoceros), whereas adults of A. variegatum appear to be largely restricted to one wildlife species (buffalo) in Zimbabwe, the distribution of which is now confined to very limited areas of the country, as part of foot and mouth disease control measures. A model to predict the rate of spread of A. hebraeum through the highveld is described.Possible control options for dealing with the spread of Amblyomma ticks and heartwater to previous unaffected highveld areas, include (1) continuation of intensive acaricide treatment of cattle to prevent the spread, (2) establishment of a buffer zone of intensive tick control around affected areas to contain the spread and (3) allow the spread to occur and control heartwater by means of immunization. An economic analysis to determine the costs and benefits of the control options, which takes into account the development of Amblyomma-specific tick control technologies and improved heartwater vaccines, is recommended.Deceased.     

Sheep tick Ixodes ricinus management on Welsh hill farms of designated conservation importance: implications for nationally declining birds

Impacts of sheep ticks Ixodes ricinus on livestock, gamebirds and wildlife are of concern across Europe. The present study describes livestock and tick management by 36 farmers from three upland sites of conservation importance in North Wales, where farmers consider that ticks have increased during the last 25 years. Sheep, average densities of 2.0 animals per ha were treated with pour‐on acaricides in spring, again in July, and also when removed from the moor in autumn. Given acaricide efficacy rates, sheep were susceptible to tick bites for half the period on the moor. Sheep from 17 farms were examined for ticks. Infestations were similar between farms and in relation to the acaricide used, averaging 9.3 ticks per sheep, although they were lower where the interval between successive acaricide treatments was shorter. Repeated sampling of sheep and red grouse chicks showed no annual difference in tick burdens on grouse chicks, which averaged 6.2 ticks per chick, although there were three‐fold fewer ticks on sheep in 2018 than in previous years. Tick bite rates on sheep and grouse were higher than elsewhere in the U.K. Most farmers interviewed would aim to improve their tick management using longer‐lasting acaricides and treating sheep more frequently, although they would need advice and financial help, which is currently unavailable via Government funded agri‐environment schemes.     

Sites of attachment and intraspecific infestation densities of the brown paralysis tick (Rhipicephalus punctatus) on Angora goats

Significant differences in the distribution of brown paralysis ticks on various age classes of Angora goats were recorded. In kids, most (>98%) of the ticks attached to the head and ears, whereas in older groups, in addition to the ears, a high proportion (>20%) of ticks also attached to the ventral side of the neck. There were significant differences in the mean infestation densities of both male and femaleR. punctatus in kids and older animals. These differences were, however, only significant for the first two sample dates involving kids, and are probably related to behavioural attributes of the kids which enhance tick/host contact. Newly born Angora goat kids are considered a high-risk group with regard to paralysis caused by the brown paralysis tick. Methods of avoiding mortality amongst kids are suggested.     

Efficacy of tags impregnated with pheromone and acaricide for control of Amblyomma variegatum

The efficacy of tags impregnated with pheromone and acaricide for control of Amblyomma variegatum on cattle in Guadeloupe was determined for a 13-week trial. Comparisons were made between untreated cattle and cattle with tags containing either pheromones alone (o-nitrophenol, methyl salicylate, 2,6-dichlorophenol and phenylacetaldehyde), pheromones plus acaricide (cyfluthrin or deltamethrin), or acaricide alone. Tags were fastened to cattle both on collars on the neck and with adhesive to tail hairs, with over 98 and 90% of tags retained, respectively, during the trial. By the end of the trial, tick infestations increased on untreated cattle (311.7%) and cattle with pheromone tags (154.8%) but decreased on cattle with pheromone/cyfluthrin (–45.0%), cyfluthrin (–42.8%), pheromone/deltamethrin (–68.7%) and deltamethrin tags (–87.6%). Cattle with pheromone tags had greater proportions of ticks on the hind regions (81%) compared to untreated cattle (62.5%) and on the front regions (18.2%) compared to untreated cattle (8.2%) indicating that ticks aggregated in response to pheromones. Analysis of hair samples by gas chromatography indicated that, within 2 days of placement, cyfluthrin spread rapidly over the body from the tags. Both cyfluthrin and deltamethrin were present in detectable levels on all eight body regions examined throughout the trial. Analysis of the tags indicated that they all still contained pheromone components after 13 weeks under field conditions.     

Use of carbon dioxide and natural or synthetic aggregation-attachment pheromone of the bont tick,Amblyomma hebraeum,to attract and trap unfed adults in the field

It was determined previously that unfed adults ofAmblyomma hebraeum become active in response to carbon dioxide but are not attracted by it. We have now shown in field experiments that males and females which are activated by carbon dioxide are attracted to the aggregation-attachment pheromone produced by males after a period of feeding on the host. Unfed adults were attracted too-nitrophenol, a component of the aggregation-attachment pheromone ofAmblyomma variegatum, pre-fed males ofA. hebraeum, and extracts of such males. Live males were more attractive than the extracts which, in turn, were more attractive thano-nitrophenol. The ticks were attracted to sources ofo-nitrophenol from as far away as 11 m in 90 min. Simple traps, baited with carbon dioxide and aggregation-attachment pheromone (from pre-fed males or extracts of pre-fed males), were used to capture unfed adults that had been released in the field. The response of unfed adults to carbon dioxide and the aggregation-attachment pheromone presents an obvious host-location mechanism and a means for the ticks to discriminate between suitable hosts (those with males already attached) and potentially unsuitable hosts (those with no males attached).     

Seasonal abundance and activity of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) in North China

Seasonal abundance and activity of all the three post-embryogenic stages of Haemaphysalis longicornis, both feeding and free-living phases, were evaluated over a period of 2 years, from February 2008 to January 2010, in North China. Feeding ticks were removed weekly from head and ears of domestic sheep and the attachment sites of this tick were assessed coinstantaneously; free-living ticks were collected weekly in four habitat types by flag-dragging. The results suggested that H. longicornis mainly resides in shrubs and completes one generation per year with population attrition between stages. Infestation of nymphs was detected from March to September with highest peak between late April and early May; adults were detected from April to September with highest peak between late June and July, and an overwintering male population was found during late September to March; infestation of larvae was observed from June to October and peaked between middle August and early September. Most of this tick (91%) attached to head and ears of hosts. Additionally, we captured rodents from April to September 2008, but only a negligible number of nymphs were detected. This result suggested that rodents are not the principal hosts for this tick in the study area.     

Methods currently used for the control of multi-host ticks: their validity and proposals for future control strategies

Ticks have a world distribution and pest status reputation of hampering livestock production through transmission of fatal disease such as theileriosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, etc. and bites which cause blood loss, pain and other debilitating effects. Control of ticks is largely more effective on the host. The multi-host ticks spend most of the time off the host with short feeding periods of between four and ten days. Chemical control using dips or sprays has been the traditional method of attempting to kill these ticks during the infestation period. In many situations control, using acaricides, has been quite successful. This has been possible through correct timing of the ticks' seasonal activity and feeding periods to determine the application interval, and efficacy of the acaricides. However, the rising costs of acaricides have made it almost impossible to use these chemicals on a regular basis according to the pest problem. This is particularly true in many Third World tropical countries in which tick-associated problems are more pronounced. This has necessitated the search for alternative tick control methods on an integrated approach to pest management. For this reason, vaccination against ticks and breeding for host resistance against ticks are being studied in the hope that future control strategies will involve only the economically effective acaricide application in conjunction with these and other methods.     

Potential role of ATP‐binding cassette transporters against acaricides in the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato

ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) transporters have been shown to be involved in pesticide detoxification in arthropod vectors and are thought to contribute to the development of drug resistance. Little is currently known about the role they play in ticks, which are among the more important vectors of human and animal pathogens. Here, the role of ABC transporters in the transport of fipronil and ivermectin acaricides in the tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) was investigated. Larvae were treated with acaricide alone and acaricide in combination with a sub‐lethal dose of the ABC transporter inhibitor cyclosporine A. The LC₅₀ doses and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) estimated by mortality data using probit analysis were 67.930 p.p.m. (95% CI 53.780–90.861) for fipronil and 3741 p.p.m. (95% CI 2857–4647) for ivermectin. The pre‐exposure of larvae to a sub‐lethal dose of cyclosporine A reduced the LC₅₀ dose of fipronil to 4.808 p.p.m. (95% CI 0.715–9.527) and that of ivermectin to 167 p.p.m. (95% CI 15–449), which increased toxicity by about 14‐ and 22‐fold, respectively. The comparison of mortality data for each separate acaricide concentration showed the synergic effect of cyclosporine A to be reduced at higher concentrations of acaricide. These results show for the first time a strong association between ABC transporters and acaricide detoxification in R.sanguineus s.l.     

Enhancement of permethrin efficacy in acaricide–attractant mixtures for control of the fowl tick Argas persicus (Acari: Argasidae)

Three acaricides, permethrin, propoxur and diazinon, were tested against Argas persicus ticks in a test of susceptibility and in a multiple choice test in bioassay. A mixture of guanine hydrochloride and diatomaceous earth in saline was used as an attractant in bioassays, causing 53.1–95.7% assembly. The attractant was mixed with acaricides to reduce their repellency and enhance their efficiency in bioassays. Permethrin was the most toxic (LC95 at day 7=0.5–1.4mg m–2 depending on the developmental stage) and most repellent acaricide. The mortality of males in the bioassay was significantly higher (76.7–94.3%, p<0.01) when acaricide in amounts of 16 and 160 g of active ingredient per filter paper disc were mixed with attractant (0.5 mg per filter paper disc) instead of acaricide alone (20–45.7% mortality only). The mean permethrin residue on the tick body at the end of bioassay with the acaricide– attractant mixture was significantly higher (13.62±11. 64 ng) than in experiments without the attractant (less than 1 ng). Propoxur was less toxic (LC95 at day 7=0.9–1.9 mg –2) and diazinon the least toxic (LC95 at day 7=2– 9.4 mg m–2), both being not or only slightly repellent. Males and females also assembled on filter paper discs treated with propoxur without an attractant. Diazinon displayed significant mortality only in amounts of 0.1 and 1 mg of active ingredient per filter paper disc with or without the attractant. Therefore, the repellency of permethrin can be reduced and its effectiveness enhanced when used in a mixture with an attractant. No similar effect was observed with propoxur or diazinon.     

Histological study of the attachment sites of adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus on rabbits and cattle

Biopsies of tick attachment sites on ears of five rabbits and four calves (Bos taurus) were taken at first and third infestations and were examined by histochemistry, light microscopy and electron microscopy. Resistance was expressed by all hosts by reduction of tick engorgement weights. Attachment sites at first infestations on rabbits and cattle were similar and were characterized by an acute inflammatory abscess with a preponderance of neutrophils and macrophages infiltrating the site. Attachment sites at third infestations on rabbits and cattle were similar and were characterized by infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages and a 2- to 5-fold increase in the proportions of eosinophils and basophils. Lymphoblasts and plasmacytes were found in third infestation sites. In rabbits there was much necrosis and in cattle there were large intraepidermal pustules in third infestations. The cement attachment cone of the ticks was of lipoprotein and contained aminopeptidase. Salivary glycoproteins and esterases were detected in the attachment sites.     

A comparison of the attraction of nymphs and adults of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to carbon dioxide and the male-produced aggregation-attachment pheromone

The attraction of nymphs of the ticksAmblyomma hebraeum andA. variegatum to CO₂ alone and CO₂ together with the male-produced aggregation-attachment pheromone (AAP) was investigated. Matching experiments on the attraction of the adults of the two species were run for comparison. Nymphs ofA. hebraeum were strongly attracted to sources of CO₂ and CO₂/AAP at distances of 10 and 15 m. At distances of 20 and 25 m significantly more nymphs were attracted to CO₂/AAP than to CO₂ alone. Adults ofA. hebraeum were not attracted to CO₂ alone at any distance; these ticks were attracted to CO₂ and AAP together for distances of up to 25 m. The patterns of attraction of nymphs and adults ofA. variegatum at 10 m were similar to those recorded inA. hebraeum.     

Synergy between fipronil and amitraz in a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhipicephalus sanguineus</Emphasis> tick residual contact test

Amitraz, a formamidine acaricide, has been reported to act as a synergist of contact insecticides and acaricides in both agriculture and animal health. A laboratory contact test was therefore conducted to determine whether amitraz at 12.5 ppm could improve the contact potency of fipronil on ticks. A controlled glass vial bioassay was used to assess the efficacy of fipronil alone, amitraz alone, and fipronil plus amitraz on unfed adult Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Assessments of lethality were made at 6, 24, and 48 h after the introduction of the ticks to the vials. No significant mortality was observed in the control treatment or in the amitraz alone treatment. Concentration and time dependent mortality rates were observed in ticks exposed to fipronil alone or fipronil plus amitraz, with higher mortality observed in the latter group. Results from this study gave synergistic EC50 ratios between fipronil alone and fipronil plus amitraz of >7.3, 137 and 97 at 6, 24, and 48 h, respectively. A similar response was seen at the EC90 level. These results indicate that fipronil was synergized by amitraz in this adult tick residual contact study. The addition of amitraz to fipronil also provided a significant improvement in the speed of kill.     

Footbath acaricide treatment to control cattle infestation by the tick Amblyomma variegatum

Previous studies have shown that about 90% of adult Amblyomma variegatum Fabricius (Acari: Ixodidae) picked up daily by grazing cattle are still attached to the interdigital areas in the evening, when the animals return from pasture. It was therefore postulated that a targeted treatment, designed to kill the ticks attached to the feet, would limit infestation of the predilection sites. Footbaths filled with various pyrethroid formulations were used over 3 years, at the beginning of the rainy season (from mid-May to the end of July), to assess the efficacy of such a control method. It proved efficient in preventing the ticks from attaching to the predilection sites. Although five to 12 A. variegatum adults attached to each treated animal daily, and although the tick burden of the predilection sites of control cattle increased each day by four to 10 ticks, the average infestation of the predilection sites of treated cattle that were initially highly infested (over 100 ticks/animal) continuously decreased to reach a level of about 10-30 ticks/animal after 6-8 weeks of treatment. In herds with a lower initial tick burden (40-70 ticks/animal) this level was obtained within 2-3 weeks and the mean infestation subsequently remained consistently low. Footbath treatment carried out every other day during the adult peak infestation period should therefore greatly limit losses due to ticks. This method was appreciated by traditional livestock farmers, essentially because it is not time-consuming and because it requires only c. 200 mL aqueous formulation per animal at each passage. The cost of the acaricide needed to treat one animal during the peak infestation period was assessed at c. euro 0.20. This control method might also have an impact on some species of tsetse flies and mosquitoes, thereby contributing to trypanosomiasis and malaria control.