Modeling growth,lipid accumulation and lipid turnover in submerged batch cultures of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Umbelopsis isabellina</Emphasis>

The production of lipids by oleaginous yeast and fungi becomes more important because these lipids can be used for biodiesel production. To understand the process of lipid production better, we developed a model for growth, lipid production and lipid turnover in submerged batch fermentation. This model describes three subsequent phases: exponential growth when both a C-source and an N-source are available, carbohydrate and lipid production when the N-source is exhausted and turnover of accumulated lipids when the C-source is exhausted. The model was validated with submerged batch cultures of the fungus Umbelopsis isabellina (formerly known as Mortierella isabellina) with two different initial C/N-ratios. Comparison with chemostat cultures with the same strain showed a significant difference in lipid production: in batch cultures, the initial specific lipid production rate was almost four times higher than in chemostat cultures but it decreased exponentially in time, while the maximum specific lipid production rate in chemostat cultures was independent of residence time. This indicates that different mechanisms for lipid production are active in batch and chemostat cultures. The model could also describe data for submerged batch cultures from literature well.     

Influence of Environmental Factors and Medium Composition on Vibrio gazogenes Growth and Prodigiosin Production

Vibrio gazogenes ATCC 29988 growth and prodigiosin synthesis were studied in batch culture on complex and defined media and in chemostat cultures on defined medium. In batch culture on complex medium, a maximum growth rate of 0.75 h⁻¹ and a maximum prodigiosin concentration of 80 ng of prodigiosin · mg of cell protein⁻¹ were observed. In batch culture on defined medium, maximum growth rates were lower (maximum growth rate, 0.40 h⁻¹), and maximum prodigiosin concentrations were higher (1,500 ng · mg of protein⁻¹). In batch culture on either complex or defined medium, growth was characterized by a period of logarithmic growth followed by a period of linear growth; on either medium, prodigiosin biosynthesis was maximum during linear growth. In batch culture on defined medium, the initial concentration of glucose optimal for growth and pigment production was 3.0%; higher levels of glucose suppressed synthesis of the pigment. V. gazogenes had an absolute requirement for Na⁺; optimal growth occurred in the presence of 100 mM NaCl. Increases in the concentration of Na⁺ up to 600 mM resulted in further increases in the concentration of pigment in the broth. Prodigiosin was synthesized at a maximum level in the presence of inorganic phosphate concentrations suboptimal for growth. Concentrations of KH₂PO₄ above 0.4 mM caused decreased pigment synthesis, whereas maximum cell growth occurred at 1.0 mM. Optimal growth and pigment production occurred in the presence of 8 to 16 mg of ferric ion · liter⁻¹, with higher concentrations proving inhibitory to both growth and pigment production. Both growth and pigment production were found to decrease with increased concentrations of p-aminobenzoic acid. The highest specific concentration of prodigiosin (3,480 ng · mg protein⁻¹) was observed in chemostat cultures at a dilution rate of 0.057 h⁻¹. The specific rate of prodigiosin production at this dilution rate was approximately 80% greater than that observed in batch culture on defined medium. At dilution rates greater than 0.057 h⁻¹, the concentration of cells decreased with increasing dilution rate, resulting in a profile comparable to that expected for linear growth kinetics. No explanation could be found for the linear growth profiles obtained for both batch and chemostat cultures.     

The effect of methylated cyclodextrin on pertussis toxin accumulation in a Bordetella pertussis culture in a bioreactor

The results obtained in the study of the influence methylated cyclodextrin (beta CD) on the growth of B. pertussis and the accumulation of pertussis toxin in the course of submerged batch cultivation in a bioreactor are presented. As demonstrated by these results, the presence of beta CD in the culture medium in a dose of 0.1 ml/l in the growth deceleration phase causes a tenfold increase in the synthesis of pertussis toxin by microbial cells in comparison with conditions characterized by the absence of beta CD. It cannot by ruled out that beta CD may act as a stressor which influences the synthesis of pertussis toxin, protector protein making it possible for the microbe to survive under new conditions.     

Trial of pertussis toxin activity in vitro on CHO cells

The activity of B. pertussis toxin has been tested in the continuous culture of CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells. The in vitro method of testing B. pertussis toxin is rapid, highly sensitive and specific. The unit of activity of B. pertussis toxin is higher than in mouse tests by several orders. The specificity of the action of B. pertussis toxin on CHO cells has been confirmed by the test of the neutralization of the toxicity effect with antiserum.     

Characteristics of the constituent substrains of Bacillus popilliae growing in batch and continuous cultures.

Continuous culture of Bacillus popilliae was achieved for the first time in a small chemostat. Initially, variable cell yields during steady-state chemostat growth led to a re-examination of growth rates in batch cultures. B. popilliae NRRL B-2309 and a wild strain were both found to be natural mixtures of three substrains characterized by different growth rates and colony morphologies and varying stability. Selected subcultures grown continuously provided data for three different cell production curves. Cell yields were two to three times greater per unit of medium in continuous than in batch culture, and about 1% of slow-growing chemostat cells formed typical spores.     

Characteristics of the constituent substrains of Bacillus popilliae growing in batch and continuous cultures.

Continuous culture of Bacillus popilliae was achieved for the first time in a small chemostat. Initially, variable cell yields during steady-state chemostat growth led to a re-examination of growth rates in batch cultures. B. popilliae NRRL B-2309 and a wild strain were both found to be natural mixtures of three substrains characterized by different growth rates and colony morphologies and varying stability. Selected subcultures grown continuously provided data for three different cell production curves. Cell yields were two to three times greater per unit of medium in continuous than in batch culture, and about 1% of slow-growing chemostat cells formed typical spores.     

Kinetic analysis of batch and continuous culture of Streptococcus cremoris HP1.

The growth of Streptococcus cremoris on a semidefined medium was studied at initial lactose concentrations of 0.2-5.0% in batch culture, and in lactose-limited chemostat cultures at 0.5% lactose. Kinetic analysis of the batch data, using statisitcal techniques, indicated the importance of lactose limitation and lactic acid inhibition of the growth of S. cremoris. A model for the biomass production, lactose utilization, and lactic acid production in batch culture was proposed. In continuous culture, it was found that steady state populations were maintained at higher dilution rates (D = 0.6-0.7 h-1) than the maximum predicted by batch culture (0.56h-1). No evidence for a selection of fast growing mutants was obtained. Copious growth adhering to the walls of the fermentor (i.e. wall growth) occurred very rapidly at higher dilution rates and this undoubtedly affected steady-state growth and wash-out and, as a consequence, the apparent maximum dilution rate.     

Binding of ATP by pertussis toxin and isolated toxin subunits.

The binding of ATP to pertussis toxin and its components, the A subunit and B oligomer, was investigated. Whereas, radiolabeled ATP bound to the B oligomer and pertussis toxin, no binding to the A subunit was observed. The binding of [3H]ATP to pertussis toxin and the B oligomer was inhibited by nucleotides. The relative effectiveness of the nucleotides was shown to be ATP greater than ATP greater than GTP greater than CTP greater than TTP for pertussis toxin and ATP greater than GTP greater than TTP greater than CTP for the B oligomer. Phosphate ions inhibited the binding of [3H]ATP to pertussis toxin in a competitive manner; however, the presence of phosphate ions was essential for binding of ATP to the B oligomer. The toxin substrate, NAD, did not affect the binding of [3H]ATP to pertussis toxin, although the glycoprotein fetuin significantly decreased binding. These results suggest that the binding site for ATP is located on the B oligomer and is distinct from the enzymatically active site but may be located near the eukaryotic receptor binding site.     

Siderophore production by Fusarium venenatum A3/5

Fusarium venenatum A3/5 was grown in iron-restricted batch cultures and iron-limited chemostat cultures to determine how environmental conditions affected siderophore production. The specific growth rate in iron-restricted batch cultures was 0.22 h(-1), which was reduced to 0.12 h(-1) when no iron was added to the culture. D(crit) in iron-limited chemostat culture was 0.1 h(-1). Siderophore production was correlated with specific growth rate, with the highest siderophore production occurring at D=0.08 h(-1) and the lowest at D=0.03 h(-1). Siderophore production was greatest at pH 4.7 and was significantly reduced at pHs above 6.0. Siderophore production could be enhanced by providing insoluble iron instead of soluble iron in continuous flow cultures.     

Production of gramicidin S synthetases by Bacillus brevis in continuous culture.

The effects of different nutrient limitations on the production of the two enzymes of gramicidin S biosynthesis were studied during continuous culture of Bacillus brevis. Gramicidin S synthetases I and II were produced in the chemostat under carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus or sulphur limitation. The growth rate, rather than the nature of the limitation, was the major controlling factor in regulating the level of the gramicidin S synthetases. Synthetase production was low at high dilution rates (0.45 to 0.50 h-1) but increased as the dilution rate was lowered. The highest specific activities occurred at dilution rates that were different for each type of limitation: 0.40 h-1 for nitrogen, 0.32 h-1 for carbon, 0.24 h-1 for sulphur and 0.20 h-1 for phosphorus. Phosphorus limitation gave the highest specific activities. At low dilution rates (0.10 to 0.15 h-1), enzyme activities were again low. Sporulation occurred under carbon limitation, but at a lower dilution rate than that which supported optimal gramicidin S synthetase formation. The specific productivity of the synthetases in the chemostat was higher than the highest productivity obtained in batch growth.     

Influence of environmental factors on endo-β-1,4-glucanase production by Bacillus HR68, isolated from a Zimbabwean hot spring

The production of endo-β-1,4-glucanase by a Bacillus strain isolated from a hot spring in Zimbabwe was studied in batch culture, chemostat culture, and carbon dioxide-regulated auxostat (CO₂-auxostat). The bacteria produced the enzyme in the presence of excess glucose or sucroso, but not under carbon-limited conditions in a chemostat using mineral medium. There was a specific growth rate dependent linear increase in enzyme production in glucose excess, nitrogen-limited chemostat cultures. A high specific growth rate of 2.2 h^-1 and a high rate of enzyme production of 362 nkat (mg dry mass h)^-1 were attained under nutrient rich conditions in the CO₂-auxostat. The bacteria had the highest specific growth rate and endo-β-1,4-glucanase enzyme production at 50° C. The maximum specific growth rate and the rate of enzyme production increased when yeast extract and tryptone were added in increasing amounts to the mineral medium used for cultivation in separate experiments. Increasing the glucose concentration in the CO₂-auxostat cultures increased the rate of enzyme production but did not affect the specific growth rate.     

Production of the macrolide antibiotic tylosin in batch and chemostat cultures

The production of tylosin and related compounds by Streptomyces fradiae NRRL 2702 was studied in batch and chemostat cultures using a soluble synthetic medium. In batch culture, a trophophase–idiophase kinetic pattern was observed with tylosin, macrocin, and relomycin accumulating in the idiophase. When the organism was grown in chemostat culture, the specific rate of production of tylosin and related compounds (q_tylosin) was found to be a function of the growth rate. The maximum value of (q_tylosin) was observed when D = 0.017 hr^?1. At this growth rate only tylosin and relomycin accumulated in the medium. By varying the concentration of glucose in the ingoing medium it was possible to study the effects of glucose on tylosin synthesis in chemostat cultures. At a growth rate of 0.017 hr^?1, the maximum value of q_tylosin was 0.71 mg tylosin/g dry weight (DW)/hr when the glucose uptake rate was 7 mg glucose/g DW-hr. This value of q_tylosin was 40% greater than the maximum q_tylosin observed in batch culture. When glycerol was substituted for glucose in the medium, it was possible in chemostat culutures to get values of q_tylosin approximately 20% greater than those obtained with glucose at the same uptake rate. By varying the concentration of sodium glutamate in the ingoing medium it was possible to show that increasing the specific uptake rate of sodium glutamate increased the values of q_tylosin obtained. Similar chemostat experiments where the inorganic phosphate concentration in the ingoing medium was varied showed that increased the uptake of phosphate decreased the values of q_tylosin obtained. Also increasing the uptake rate of phosphate increased the relomycin-to-tylosin ratio. By taking into consideration the suppressing effects of glucose and the stimulating effects of sodium glutamate on tylosin synthesis, it was possible to formulate a medium that resulted in a value of q_tylosin of 1.1 mg/g/hr being obtained at a growth rate of 0.03 hr^?1. Batch fermentations with this medium did not follow a trophophase–idiophase kinetic pattern, but instead tylosin was actively synthesized during a period of rapid mycelial growth.     

Neurotensin, bradykinin and somatostatin inhibit cAMP production in neuroblastoma N1E115 cells via both pertussis toxin sensitive and insensitive mechanisms

Neurotensin, bradykinin and somatostatin inhibited in a time- and concentration-dependent manner prostaglandin E1- or forskolin-stimulated cAMP production in neuroblastoma N1E115 cells. Cell treatment with 1 microgram/ml pertussis toxin for 6 hours reversed the inhibition elicited by peptides after short incubation periods (less than or equal to 1 min) but, in contrast, had no effect after longer incubation periods (greater than or equal to 3 min). Fluoroaluminate also inhibited prostaglandin E1-stimulated cAMP production in N1E115 cells, and this effect was not reversed by pertussis toxin. The 6 hour treatment with pertussis toxin was shown to be sufficient to ADP ribosylate virtually all of the 41 kD protein substrate corresponding to the alpha subunit of Gi. Protein kinase C activation with phorbol ester did not inhibit basal or stimulated cAMP production. Our data point to the existence of both pertussis toxin sensitive and insensitive mechanisms of neuropeptide-mediated inhibition of cAMP formation in N1E115 cells. The toxin insensitive response is not mediated by protein kinase C. The possibility is discussed that it results from the activation of a pertussis toxin insensitive G protein.     

Antitoxin in human pertussis immune globulins

The level of antitoxin i.e. neutralizing antibodies to pertussis toxin, or lymphocytosis promoting factor, was determined in six pertussis immune globulin preparations from different manufactures. A comparison with antitoxin levels after natural pertussis disease in adults showed that pertussis immune globulins did not contain more antitoxin than convalescent phase sera, i.e. they had very low antitoxin content for specific immune globulins. Agglutinin and anti-FHA titres were relatively higher in immune globulins, probably reflecting a difference between the antibody response elicited by whole cell vaccines used for hyperimmunization in immune globulin production and by natural disease. The low antitoxin content of currently available pertussis immune globulin preparations could explain the inefficacy or conflicting results obtained with these products in prophylaxis and therapy of whooping cough.     

Effect of ras-gene transformation on the inhibition of NIH3T3 cell growth by pertussis toxin

To investigate the relationship between the effects of a pertussis toxin-inhibitable class of G-proteins and the ras family of protooncogenes on cell growth, we isolated multiple cell lines transformed by oncogenic Hras or Nras genes and measured the ability of pertussis toxin to inhibit their growth rate. Although all of the cell lines were morphologically transformed and could grow in agar suspension, there was considerable variability in their resistance to pertussis toxin, ranging from cell lines completely resistant to pertussis toxin to cell lines as sensitive to pertussis toxin as the parental cells from which they derived. For those lines resistant to pertussis toxin, this resistance is not due to an inability of pertussis toxin to reach or react with its intracellular target; pertussis toxin could be shown to ADP-ribosylate the endogenous G-proteins of all lines tested regardless of whether it affected their growth rate. There was a strong correlation between the level of active ras protein expressed in the different lines and the degree of resistance to pertussis toxin (r = 0.80). Although the Hras-transformed cell lines were more resistant to pertussis toxin as a group than the Nras-transformed cell lines, we believe that this is not a primary difference between Nras and Hras, but, rather, is due to a higher average level of expression of ras in the cell lines receiving Hras. We suggest that the consequences of ras transformation vary with the concentration of oncogenic ras present in the cell, and that different assays or different properties of transformation show different sensitivities to the level of ras expression.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Inhibition of monocyte oxidative responses by Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase toxin

Bordetella pertussis and the other Bordetella species produce a novel adenylate cyclase toxin which enters target cells to catalyze the production of supraphysiologic levels of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). In these studies, dialyzed extracts from B. pertussis containing the adenylate cyclase toxin, a partially purified preparation of adenylate cyclase toxin, and extracts from transposon Tn5 mutants of B. pertussis lacking the adenylate cyclase toxin, were used to assess the effects of adenylate cyclase toxin on human peripheral blood monocyte activities. Luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence of monocytes stimulated with opsonized zymosan was inhibited greater than 96% by exposure to adenylate cyclase toxin-containing extract, but not by extracts from adenylate cyclase toxin-deficient mutants. The chemiluminescence responses to particulate (opsonized zymosan, Leishmania donovani, and Staphylococcus aureus) and soluble (phorbol myristate acetate) stimuli were inhibited equivalently. The superoxide anion generation elicited by opsonized zymosan was inhibited 92% whereas that produced by phorbol myristate acetate was inhibited only 32% by B. pertussis extract. Inhibition of oxidative activity was associated with a greater than 500-fold increase in monocyte cAMP levels, but treated monocytes remained viable as assessed by their ability to exclude trypan blue and continued to ingest particulate stimuli. The major role of the adenylate cyclase toxin in the inhibition of monocyte oxidative responses was demonstrated by: 1) little or no inhibition by extracts from B. pertussis mutants lacking adenylate cyclase toxin; 2) high level inhibition with extract from B. parapertussis, a related species lacking pertussis toxin; and 3) a reciprocal relationship between monocyte cAMP levels and inhibition of opsonized zymosan-induced chemiluminescence using both crude extract and partially purified adenylate cyclase toxin. Pertussis toxin, which has been shown to inhibit phagocyte responses to some stimuli by a cAMP-independent mechanism, had only a small (less than 20%) inhibitory effect when added at concentrations up to 100-fold in excess of those present in B. pertussis extract. These data provide strong support for the hypothesis that B. pertussis adenylate cyclase toxin can increase cAMP levels in monocytes without compromising target cell viability or impairing ingestion of particles and that the resultant accumulated cAMP is responsible for the inhibition of oxidative responses to a variety of stimuli.     

Maximum cell productivity by repeated fed-batch culture for constant yield case

Optimal operation of repeatedly fed-batch was determined by the continuous maximum principle for the constant yield case. The objective of maximum cell productivity for a fixed cell concentration was achieved by finding the substrate feeding policy that minimized the processing time. Analytical criteria for the optimal filling policy show that an exponential policy is optimum when the specific growth rate has a maximum, and also that operation in the simple repeated batch mode is optimum when the specific growth rate is monotonic increasing. Comparisons between optimal repeated fed-batch culture and other modes of operation were made for the case of substrate-inhibited growth. Cell productivity by repeated fed-batch exceeds both batch and continuous operation for the case of low residual substrate concentration.     

Isolation of a yeast-lyzing Arthrobacter species and the production of the lytic enzyme complex in batch and continuous-flow fermentors

A gram-negative bacterium strongly lytic toward living cells of the food yeast Saccharomyces fragilis was isolated by continuous-flow enrichment from compost. The organism was identified as a species of Arthrobacter. The extracellular lytic enzyme complex produced by this bacterium contained β-1,3-glucanase, mannan mannohydrolase, and proteolytic activities. The polysaccharases were inducible by whole yeast cells. In chemostat cultures on chemically defined media, synthesis of the polysaccharases was very slight and only detectable at dilution rates below 0.02 hr^?1. Enzyme production in defined media was not solely dependent on growth rate but also was influenced by the growth limiting substrate and the culture history. The production of individual depolymerases and of the lytic activity was studied in batch and chemostat cultures containing yeast as the limiting substrate. The maximum specific growth rate of the Arthrobacter under these conditions was 0.22 hr^?1. β-1,3-Glucanase and proteolytic activities were synthesized by exponentially growing bacteria but maximum lytic titers did not develop until the specific growth rate was declining, at which time mannan mannohydrolase syntheses was induced. In yeast limited chemostats polysaccharase syntheses were greatest at the lowest dilution rates examined, namely 0.02 hr^?1. Further optimization of enzyme production was achieved by feeding the Arthrobacter culture to a second-stage chemostat. A comparison of lytic enzyme productivities in batch and chemostat cultures has been made.     

Growth of Chlorella in a Nitrate-limited Chemostat

Chlorella pyrenoidosa was grown in a continuous-flow chemostat under nitrogen-limited conditions. The population density tended to oscillate very significantly. Net specific growth rate was only approximately a hyperbolic function of nitrate concentration in the chemostat. The best estimate of the half-saturation constant for nitrate is 6 mug of nitrogen per liter and it is unlikely that the value is greater than 14 mug per liter or 1 mum nitrate.The dry weight production of cells per unit of nitrogen taken up is a linearly decreasing function of the net specific growth rate with a maximum of 27.1 mg per mg N and a minimum of about 9 mg per mg N. Thus there is considerable storage of nitrogen at high growth rates. Both the dark respiration rate and the rate of photosynthesis at light saturation increase with increasing net specific growth rate.     

Engineering Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to achieve an inverse growth – associated production of a foreign protein, β-galactosidase

Protein synthesis in mammalian cells can be observed in two strikingly different patterns: 1) production of monoclonal antibodies in hybridoma cultures is typically inverse growth associated and 2) production of most therapeutic glycoproteins in recombinant mammalian cell cultures is found to be growth associated. Production of monoclonal antibodies has been easily maximized by culturing hybridoma cells at very low growth rates in high cell density fed- batch or perfusion bioreactors. Applying the same bioreactor techniques to recombinant mammalian cell cultures results in drastically reduced production rates due to their growth associated production kinetics. Optimization of such growth associated production requires high cell growth conditions, such as in repeated batch cultures or chemostat cultures with attendant excess biomass synthesis. Our recent research has demonstrated that this growth associated production in recombinant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells is related to the S (DNA synthesis)-phase specific production due to the SV40 early promoter commonly used for driving the foreign gene expression. Using the stably transfected CHO cell lines synthesizing an intracellular reporter protein under the control of SV40 early promoter, we have recently demonstrated in batch and continuous cultures that the product synthesis is growth associated. We have now replaced this S-phase specific promoter in new expression vectors with the adenovirus major late promoter which was found to be active primarily in the G1-phase and is expected to yield the desirable inverse growth associated production behavior. Our results in repeated batch cultures show that the protein synthesis kinetics in this resulting CHO cell line is indeed inverse growth associated. Results from continuous and high cell density perfusion culture experiments also indicate a strong inverse growth associated protein synthesis. The bioreactor optimization with this desirable inverse growth associated production behavior would be much simpler than bioreactor operation for cells with growth associated production. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.