The presence of statocysts and statoliths in social wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespinae)

Static sense organs composed of a hollow statocyst surrounded by sensory hairs and containing aggregate bodies (statoliths) have been detected in various species of Vespinae. On the frons in the groove traversing its center (the frontal groove) there is a deep pit and around it a membrane enclosing a cyst-like sac. In Vespa orientalis there are silicon (Si) and calcium (Ca)-containing aggregates inside the pit arranged in morula-like fashion, and in V. crabro, there are similar aggregates arranged in an ear-like shape. In general this sensillar organ resembles the statocyst located on the bases of the antennules in decapod crustaceans.     

Sticky predators: a comparative study of sticky glands in harpactorine assassin bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera: Reduviidae)

Zhang, G. and Weirauch, C. 2011. Sticky predators: a comparative study of sticky glands in harpactorine assassin bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera: Reduviidae). —Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 00 : 1–10. For more than 50 years, specialized dermal glands that secrete sticky substances and specialized setae have been known from the legs of New World assassin bugs in the genus Zelus Fabricius (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae). The gland secretions and specialized ‘sundew setae’ are involved in enhancing predation success. We here refer to this predation strategy as ‘sticky trap predation’ and the specialized dermal glands as ‘sticky glands’. To determine how widespread sticky trap predation is among Reduviidae, we investigated taxonomic distribution of sticky glands and sundew setae using compound light microscopical and scanning electron microscopical techniques and sampling 67 species of Reduviidae that represent 50 genera of Harpactorini. We found sticky glands in 12 genera of Harpactorini and thus show that sticky trap predation is much more widespread than previously suspected. The sticky glands vary in shape, size and density, but are always located in a dorsolateral position on the fore tibia. Sundew setae are present in all taxa with sticky glands with the exception of Heza that instead possesses unique lamellate setae. The sticky trap predation taxa are restricted to the New World, suggesting a New World origin of this unique predation strategy.     

Internal micromorphology of the frons plate in females of the oriental hornet

Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray analysis (SEM/EDS) have been used to study the internal micromorphology of the frons plate in the Oriental hornet, Vespa orientalis. A conical shaped organ was described which is recessed into the frons plate and projects toward the interior of the acoustic box. The latter is located on the inner side of the frons plate. On the exterior of the conical region are observed aggregates containing Ca and Si, and a thin transparent membrane bearing a hole in its center. The innermost surface of the conical structure terminates bluntly as a convex lentiform tip, bearing a transparent oval-shaped window in its center. The conical organ, excepting the window, is enclosed in several layers of epithelium. The structure of this many-layered conical organ is highly complex; its numerous sub-structures and the possible role as a gravity sense organ are discussed. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

河南省泉种蝇属一新种：（双翅目：花蝇科）

本文记述河南省北部太行山区的花蝇科泉种蝇属一新种。模式标本保存在中国科学院上海昆虫研究所。突额泉种蝇Pegohylemyia convexifrons Fan,Chen et Chen,H.,新种(图1-3) :体长6-7mm。头长为头高的0.9倍;眼具疏短微毛;额等于或略宽于前单眼宽,间额黑,突出于侧额,向前扩展成很宽的三角形,色转红褐,侧额上端极狭,向前亦渐宽;间额鬃2对,稍短于单眼鬃,下眶鬃约8-10,在列外侧和列间尚杂有少数细毛,在下眶鬃列内侧的间额边缘每侧有一、二行不整齐共约十余个内倾鬃状毛和细毛;头前面粉被银白,但沿侧额内缘暗色;前额宽约为触角第三节的1.4倍,侧颜向下去明     

The architecture of the accessory reproductive glands of the male desert locust. 5: ultrastructure during maturation

The accessory reproductive glands of the male desert locust were studied with the electron microscope from the time of adult emergence until full sexual maturity was attained (10 days). Observations on the changes in the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the glandular epithelium, particularly those organelles involved in the elaboration of cell secretions, were made during the maturation of the accessory glands. Cells of gland 16 (the functional seminal vesicle) exhibit numerous ribosomal aggregates, have a concentration of mitochondria along their luminal surface, and show some secretory activity, even at the time of adult emergence. On the other hand, all other accessory glands show very little development of the secretory apparatus (rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum, polyribosomes, Golgi elements, elaborate mitochondria, etc.) until after the fifth adult day. These changes parallel changes in the secretory activity of the adult corpus allatum; and it is suggested that the corpus allatum hormone regulates the maturation of the truly glandular accessory glands of the locust, but not that of the functional vesicle.     

The effects of a severe drought on the morphology of the adrenal glands and other indices of health in the red kangaroo Megaleia rufa (Desmarest) in north-western New South Wales*

Drought adversely affects health and reproduction in red kangaroos (Megaleia rufa) (Desmarest). There is a significant drop in body weight in adult kangaroos, and growth rates of pouch young are depressed. In adult males both lobes of the pituitary gland decrease in size. All zones in the adrenal glands become smaller and lipid stores increase. In adult females the posterior lobe of the pituitary increases in size and, although all zones in the adrenal glands shrink the evidence suggests continued stimulation of the Zonae fasciculata and glomerulosa. The decrease in size of the adrenal glands is accompanied by cortical folding and nodulation and other structural changes. Growth curves of pouch young are shown to fit the Johnson-Schumacher curve Y = A * exp [-b/(x + k)]. The data substantiate the findings of earlier workers but suggest that anoestrous female red kangaroos suckling small young may be better adapted to withstand drought than males.     

Hopping locomotion in a nematode: Functional anatomy of the caudal gland apparatus of Theristus caudasaliens sp. n.

The interstitial nematode Theristus caudasaliens n. sp. normally locomotes by hopping on the left side of its tail tip, a mode of locomotion that is unique among nematodes. The animal uses its caudal glands and caudal musculature to perform the hops, attaching itself momentarily between hops with the glands and executing the hops by straightening and curling the posterior part of its body. The caudal gland apparatus can be seen by electron microscopy to consist of five gland cells of two different types. Three of these cells, termed viscid glands, are involved in adhesion of the animal to substrates and produce ovoid granules with a central dense band. The other two cells are characterized by smaller, lessdense granules and presumably function in releasing the animal from substrates. The ducts of both gland types extend to the tail tip where they terminate in a common crescent-shaped space. Their secretions are released to the outside through two pores on the left side of the tail tip. There is no spinneret valve in this nematode. The muscles of the tail and of the mid-body region are developed to the same extent. The caudal gland apparatus can be compared with the duo-gland adhesive organs of other interstitial animals, but its homology with either these organs or the caudal glands of other nematodes is uncertain. Theristus caudasaliens is described as a new species.     

四川短尾鼩包皮腺的挥发性化学成分分析

哺乳动物的包皮腺分泌物对个体间性引诱及繁殖行为的信息交流和种群调节有着重要的作用。本研究以四川短尾鼩（Anourosorex squamipes）为研究对象对劳亚食虫目动物包皮腺挥发性化学成分和化学通讯功能进行报道。采用顶空固相微萃取—气质联用（HS-SPME-GC/MS）的方法,分析四川短尾鼩雄体包皮腺中挥发性物质的化学组成。结果表明：（1）四川短尾鼩雄体包皮腺的挥发性化学成分主要含烷烃类、醇类、酮类、醛类、醚类、酯类、酸类、芳香烃类等45种化合物;（2）成年雄性四川短尾鼩的包皮腺中挥发性成分有39种,幼年雄性含有28种,说明四川短尾鼩成年雄体的包皮腺中挥发性化学成分多于幼年雄体;（3）成年雄体的包皮腺分泌物中含有4种特有的挥发性化学成分,幼年雄体中特有成分仅为1种,表明四川短尾鼩包皮腺中的挥发性化学成分存在年龄差异;（4）四川短尾鼩包皮腺分泌物中不同化学成分相对含量不同,同种化学成分在不同个体间的相对含量存在差异。四川短尾鼩雄性包皮腺挥发性化合物种类丰富,个体、年龄差异明显。推测挥发性化合物中丁酸（Butanoicacid）、乙酸乙酯（Ethyl acetate）、苯酚（Phenol）为四川短尾鼩的信息素。本研究为进一步验证该物种的信息素成分及其传递机制提供了基础数据。     

Exocrine glands and the attractiveness of the ergatoid queen in the ponerine antMegaponera foetens

Summary Queens inMegaponera foetens are permanently wingless. In a colony from Kenya we observed that the ergatoid queen was often surrounded by a large number of workers, all conspicuously facing her. To investigate the nature of this attraction, we divided the colony in half. When the queen was transferred from one group to the other, a large court of workers formed immediately. When marked workers were transferred from the queenright group to the other, they attracted much attention and were licked repeatedly. These data suggest that the queen produces a chemical signal which attracts workers, and this signal is transferred onto the workers. In a histological investigation of queen and workers, we found many intersegmental glands in both castes. However, only the queen had a thick glandular epithelium lining her entire body, and this may be the source of her signal. The numerous erect setae covering the queen (but not the workers) may help to dispense the secretions. Our results confirm that ergatoid queens in the Ponerinae are morphologically specialized, despite their external similarity with workers.     

Exocrine chemistry of the myrmicine ant Zacryptocerus pusillus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Minor workers of the ant Zacryptocerus pusillus have unusual exocrine secretions in both their mandibular and Dufour glands. The mandibular glands contain a 3:1 mixture of 4-heptanone and 4-heptanol, a mixture found only in the related species Z. varians. The Dufour gland contains a mixture of 13 aldehydes from C9 to C18, not previously encountered in ant secretions. The venom glands gave variable results with only nonanal present consistently.     

Worker size polymorphism and ethological role of sting associated glands in the harvester ant Messor barbarus

Summary: Though harvester ants are closely similar in ecology, species differ in their worker size polymorphism as well as in the glandular source of their trail pheromones and defensive compounds. In the harvester ant Messor barbarus, we find that the recruitment trail pheromone is located in the Dufour gland, while defence-alarm substances are produced in the poison gland. We also investigated how the glandular development and the ethological response to these abdominal glands are related to worker body size. For both glands, M. barbarus workers show monophasic and nonisometric growths with slopes of allometric regression lines lower than 1. The highest trail-following response is elicited by the Dufour gland secretion from media workers, responsible for most foraging activities in M. barbarus. Aggressive behaviour is more frequently observed in the presence of poison gland secretions from medium and large-sized workers. Differences between species and between worker size classes in the ethological role of sting associated glands are discussed in relation to the foraging ecology and defensive characteristics of harvester ants.     

Age-dependent changes in ultrastructure of the defensive glands of Neocapritermes taracua workers (Isoptera,Termitidae)

Protection against predators and competitors is one of the main concerns of termite colonies, which developed a specialised defensive caste, the soldiers. However, soldiers are rare or even missing in several lineages of termites, while workers often develop new defence strategies especially in soil-feeding species. Here, we describe the morphology and ultrastructure of the autothysis-associated glands of Neocapritermes taracua workers and report their age-related changes in structure. The defensive glands of N. taracua workers consist of a pair of labial and a pair of crystal glands, whose secretions mix together through autothysis. Autothysis always occurs at the line of weakness connecting the anterior parts of the crystal-bearing pouches. The crystal glands consist of groups of bicellular secretory units (secretory and corresponding canal cells) which secrete the blue crystal material into external pouches. Their secretory activity is maximal in the middle of worker life, and is considerably lower in very young and old workers. The labial glands are composed of two types of secretory cells: the central and the parietal cells. While the central cells are developed similarly to other termites and secrete proteinaceous secretion into labial gland ducts, the parietal cells develop proteinaceous granules which may eventually bud off the cells. The secretory function of parietal cells is so far unique to N. taracua and differs from other termite species in which they are only responsible of water uptake by acini. The defensive device of N. taracua is truly exceptional as it involves a new gland and a previously undescribed function for parietal cells, being a remarkable example of evolution of morphological innovation.     

Monoclonal Antibodies to the Esophageal Glands and Stylet Secretions of Heterodera glycines

Three monodonal antibodies (MAbs) that bound to secretory granules within the subventral esophageal glands of second-stage juveniles (J2) of the soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, were developed from intrasplenic immunizations of a mouse with homogenates of SCN J2. Two MAbs to the secretory granules within subventral glands and one MAb to granules within the dorsal esophageal gland of SCN J2 were developed by intrasplenic immunizations with J2 stylet secretions. Stylet secretions, produced in vitro by incubating SCN J2 in 5-methoxy DMT oxalate, were solubilized with a high pH buffer and concentrated for use as antigen. Three of the five MAbs specific to the subventral esophageal glands bound to stylet secretions from SCN J2 in immunofluorescence and ELISA assays. Two of these three MAbs also bound to secretory granules within both the dorsal and subventral esophageal glands of young SCN females. All five of the subventral gland MAbs bound to the subventral glands of Heterodera schachtii and one bound to the subventral glands of Globodera tabacum, but none bound to any structures in Meloidogyne incognita or Caenorhabditis elegans.     

Chemical communication during foraging in the harvesting ants Messor pergandei and Messor andrei

We combined behavioral analyses in the laboratory and field to investigate chemical communication in the formation of foraging columns in two Nearctic seed harvesting ants, Messor pergandei and Messor andrei. We demonstrate that both species use poison gland secretions to lay recruitment trails. In M. pergandei, the recruitment effect of the poison gland is enhanced by adding pygidial gland secretions. The poison glands of both species contain 1-phenyl ethanol. Minute quantities (3 μl of a 0.1 ppm solution) of 1-phenyl ethanol drawn out along a 40 cm long trail released trail following behavior in M. pergandei, while M. andrei required higher concentrations (0.5–1 ppm). Messor pergandei workers showed weak trail following to 5 ppm trails of the pyrazines 2,5-dimethylpyrazine and 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, whereas M. andrei workers showed no behavioral response. Minute quantities of pyrazines were detected in M. pergandei but not in M. andrei poison glands using single ion monitoring gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.     

Electron-probe Microanalysis Studies of Silicon in the Epicarp Hairs of the Caryopses of Hordeum sativum Jess., Avena sativa L., Secale cereale L. and Triticum aestivum L.

Silicon deposits in the epicarp hairs of the caryopses of mature,field-grown specimens of Hordeum sativum, Avena sativa, Secalecereale and Triticum aestivum were investigated using electron-probemicroanalysis. In all four cereals, silicon was most concentratedat the extreme tips of the hairs. In barley, it was the onlyelement detected; in the other three cereals potassium and calciumwere located below the tip. In wheat, chlorine was also detected. The hair bases of the different cereals displayed variationin the elements detected. Silicon and polassium were presentin all four and calcium present in all except rye. The hairbases of wheat also contained chlorine; phosphorus and zincwere located in barley. The latter alone showed variation ofelements between hair bases. Scanning electron microscopy revealed heavy striations of thehair tips of barley and oats. In rye and wheat, the tips weresmooth but there were slight surface markings below the tip. The results are discussed in relation to the possible functionsand significance of the epicarp hairs and their silicification. Avena sativa L., Hordeum sativum Jess., Secale cereale L., Triticum aestivum L., oat, barley, rye, wheat, epicarp hairs, silicon, electron-probe microanalysis, scanning electron microscopy     

Adaptation of hypopharyngeal gland development to the brood status of honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies

We studied pollen consumption, head weight, hypopharyngeal gland (HPG) acini diameter, and protein synthesis and transfer in honeybee workers reared in colonies with normal and with decreasing amounts of brood. We found that head fresh weight is correlated with size of the glands and that pollen consumption is positively correlated with gland development. An effect of brood on size of the glands could be confirmed, but was not as profound as in previous studies. Similarly, no difference in the amount of protein synthesized or transferred in workers living under the two brood conditions was found. We suspect this is due to the fact that HPGs also supply food to young bees and in our study young bees were always present while in previous studies, colonies often lacked both brood and young bees.     

The design of the fly adhesive pad: distal tenent setae are adapted to the delivery of an adhesive secretion

Flies (Brachycera) have adhesive pads called pulvilli at the terminal tarsomere. The pulvilli are covered by tenent setae, sometimes termed tenent hairs, which serve to increase the actual area of attachment to the surface. By using transmission and scanning electron microscopy it is shown that proximal and distal tenent setae have different ultrastructures. The design of distal adhesive setae is adapted for the release of adhesive substances close to the area of contact. It is concluded that secretion injection is precisely targeted under the distal tip of a single seta.     

Phéromones agrégeant les ouvrières de Myrmica rubra

The workers of Myrmica rubra aggregate around a source of one of their secretions, which can be called ‘alarm pheromone’, and also around workers of Lasius flavus. The mechanism of these aggregations differ.Both L. flavus workers and a solution in liquid paraffin of 3-octanol, one of the mandibular gland compounds, act as an arrestant for the workers of M. rubra. Both Dufour's gland secretion and a source of 3-octanone, the major compound of the mandibular gland secretion, are true attractants.The poison gland secretion, a mixture of 3-octanone and 3-octanol in liquid paraffin and a solution in liquid paraffin of 3-nonanone, a minor mandibular gland compound, all induce klinokinesis. The secretion of the mandibular glands and the secretion of the venom apparatus both cause positive klinokinesis and taxis. These locomotory reactions increase the probability that an object, marked by nest mates with these secretions, will be detected by several workers.When presented alone, 3-octanone is the only attractive compound in the mandibular gland secretion. However, a mixture of 3-octanone and 3-octanol (15 per cent of 3-octanol in the vapour phase) is detected more easily by the ants. The diffusion coefficients of the two compounds are different, and a mixture of these substances creates not only a quantitative but also a qualitative odour gradient. This may explain the synergy of the mixture.     

Morphological changes in the cephalic salivary glands of females and males of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scaptotrigona postica</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Apidae)

The cephalic salivary glands of some species of bees are exclusive and well developed only in Apinae. These glands were studied with light and scanning electron microscopy in workers, queens and males from the honey bee Apis mellifera, and the stingless bee Scaptotrigona postica in different life phases. The results show that the cephalic salivary glands are present in females of both the species, and in males of S. postica. Nevertheless, they are poorly developed in young males of A. mellifera. In both species, gland growth is progressive from the time of emergence to the oldest age but, in A. mellifera males, the gland degenerates with age. Scanning electron microscopy shows that the secretory units of newly emerged workers are collapsed while in older workers they are turgid. Some pits on the surface of the secretory units correspond to open intercellular spaces. The possible functions of these glands in females and males of both species are discussed.     

Effect of primer pheromones and pollen diet on the food producing glands of worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Cooperative brood care is highly developed in the honey bee such that workers called nurses use their hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands to biosynthesize proteinaceous secretions that are progressively provisioned to larvae. The role that honey bee primer pheromones play in the functional physiology of food producing glands was examined. The combined and separate effects of queen mandibular pheromone (QMP) and brood pheromone (BP) on amount of protein extractable from hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of workers reared for 12 days with and without pollen diets was measured. In rearing environments with a pollen diet, BP, and QMP + BP pheromone treatments significantly increased extractable protein from both glands. Bees reared with QMP + pollen had amounts of protein extractable from both glands that were not significantly different from control bees (no pheromones, no pollen). Pollen in the diet alone significantly increased amounts of protein extractable from glands versus control. In rearing environments without pollen, QMP + BP had a synergizing effect on amount of protein in both glands. The QMP + BP treatment was the only rearing environment without a pollen diet where protein amounts were significantly greater than the control. The synergizing effect of QMP + BP on extractable mandibular and hypopharyngeal gland protein suggests a highly derived role for the combined effect of these two primer pheromones on honey bee cooperative brood care. Mandibular gland area was significantly and positively correlated with extractable protein. Amounts of extractable protein from both glands declined significantly with age of workers in all treatments. However, treatment significantly affected rate of decline. The adaptive significance of gland protein amounts in response to pheromones and pollen diet are discussed.