Chest-rubbing in captive woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha)

The correlates of chest-rubbing were studied in a captive group of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) to assess possible functions of territorial marking, spacing among competing groups or competing males, reproductive communication, marking to identify familiar environments, selfanointing, and displacement activity. Chest-rubbing was observed only in sexually mature monkeys and was a predominantly male activity. Females increased chest-rubbing when the original adult male died. Chest-rubbing by the first adult male was more common during the two months that he was mating with two females and at times when keepers were likely to be at the exhibit. The results suggest a reproductive function for chest-rubbing in both males and females. There is also support for chest-rubbing as a spacing activity.     

Diet and feeding ecology of gray woolly monkeys (lagothrix lagotricha cana) in Central Amazonia: Comparisons with other Atelines

I studied gray woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha cana)in an undisturbed central Amazonian terra firme forest, near the headwaters of the Urucu river, Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil (5°50’S, 65°16’W). I report the diet and feeding ecology of a group of 39–41 individuals, based on systematic feeding observations obtained during 11 months. Woolly monkeys are primarily frugivorous; mature fruits and young seeds account for 83 and 7% of 3298 feeding records, respectively. On a seasonal basis, however, they relied heavily on young foliage (16%), seed-pod exudates (6%), and flowers (3%), particularly during the greatest annual period of ripe fruit scarcity, as determined by a phenological survey. Animals represent only 0.1% of their year-round diet, and they spent little time capturing arthropods and other prey items. Although at least 225 plant species, belonging to 116 genera and 48 families, are in their diet, the three top-ranking families (Moraceae, Sapotaceae, and Leguminosae) account for 43% of their food species and 63% of the time they spent feeding on a year-round basis. I compare the feeding ecology and diet of L. 1. canain the Urucu and other taxa of Lagothrixin upper Amazonia — the last large-bodied Neotropical primates to be studied — to those of other ateline genera: Atelesand Brachyteles. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Geographic distribution and abundance of woolly (Lagothrix cana) and spider (Ateles chamek) monkeys in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia.

Two species of frugivorous atelids, Ateles chamek and Lagothrix cana, occur in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. Populations were surveyed at 36 sites in the state of Rondônia. Ateles chamek is widespread, but the distribution of L. cana is limited by a combination of riverine barriers and ecological factors, possibly including competition with A. chamek. Groups of L. cana were generally larger and more abundant than those of A. chamek, even in syntopy. The transitional forest that predominates in the extreme south of Rondônia (Hylea‐cerrado) is not a barrier to either species, with both species being tolerant of habitat disturbance when hunting pressure is low. Am. J. Primatol. 56:57–64, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Microsatellite markers for woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) and their amplification in other New World primates (Primates: Platyrrhini)

Seven polymorphic microsatellite loci were identified for woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) from an ‘enriched’ genomic library. For a wild population of 66 animals, these markers averaged over 10 alleles per locus and provided a combined probability for excluding a random individual from parentage of over 98%. These loci were screened in up to 13 other genera of New World monkeys, and many were variable in multiple taxa. Few other platyrrhine‐specific microsatellite markers have been identified; thus, these loci should prove valuable for studying the population genetic structure and mating system not just of Lagothrix but also of other neotropical primates.     

Introducing an innovative semi‐captive environment for the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)

In response to demands for research, captive breeding, and tourism, a semi‐captive environment was created for the Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol, Philippines. The 7600‐m² enclosure was continuous with the surrounding habitat, and utilized a unique predator control fence design and a lighting system to attract nocturnal insects. During 2 years of observation, the locations of over 500 tarsier sleeping sites were recorded. Tarsiers were found to prefer dense, low‐level vegetation in secondary forests, with perching sites averaging 2 m above the ground. Up to 10 tarsiers were observed within the enclosure at one time, which is a high density compared to densities based on home‐range estimates for wild tarsiers in the vicinity of the study site. In addition, the tarsiers were observed to be more social than previously reported. Zoo Biol 24:101–109, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Behavioral response of captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to the death of silverbacks in multi‐male groups

In both free‐ranging and captive western lowland gorillas, a silverback provides protection and leadership, mediating conflict within a group. In the wild, when a dominant silverback dies the group will disperse or transfer to a solitary male, unless a subsequent male is present to inherit the group. In captivity, studies have focused on groups containing one male and therefore it is unclear how gorillas respond to the death or removal of a silverback in multi‐male groups. This study examined the behavior of a bachelor group (Cleveland Metroparks Zoo) and a multi‐male, mixed‐sex group (Pittsburgh Zoo and PPG Aquarium) following the death of two older silverbacks in 2005. Both of the younger but dominant males maintained their same level of dominance after the death. We predicted that agonism would increase after the death as groups struggled for social stablility. We did observe an increase in both agonism and displacements among the bachelor group, but only observed an increase in displacements among the mixed‐sex group. Although we predicted that there would be no change in solitary behavior, both groups decreased feeding and the mixed‐sex group increased self‐directed behavior post‐death. In the bachelor group, self‐directed behavior decreased and undesirable behavior increased. We also observed a difference in spatial distance after the death with members of the mixed‐sex group becoming more dispersed and members of the bachelor group more converged. This study demonstrates that there is a period of transition for multi‐male groups after the death or removal of the oldest silverback. Future research could integrate physiological measures with behavioral analyses before and after the death or removal of a prominent member of the group. Zoo Biol 29:16–29, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Activity of free‐living subterranean blind mole rats Spalax galili (Rodentia: Spalacidae) in an area of supposed sympatric speciation

Subterranean rodents forage underground, which is energetically costly. Therefore, they can be expected to economize burrowing activity in response to food supply and soil characteristics. We analyzed the activity of radio‐tracked blind mole rats, Spalax galili, on a locality sharply subdivided into harder but relatively food‐rich, basaltic soil and softer, relatively food‐poor rendzina. It was recently proposed that the mole rats in this locality are undergoing sympatric ecological speciation. We predicted that mole rats from basaltic soil would be less active than those from rendzina as a result of the reduced need for burrowing to reach food. By contrast to our predictions, mole rats from basaltic soil were more frequently located outside the nest and observed pushing soil above ground. We suggest that this is a result of territorial behaviour due to high population density. All mole rats exhibited a unimodal daily activity pattern likely related to temperature. Large males had large but gradually decreasing home‐ranges, likely indicating the end of the mating season. We conclude that the ecological differences between the habitats cause behavioural differences in the mole rats, which indicates different selection pressures. The genetic divergence previously found between the populations might have arisen via density‐dependent selection.     

Grooming,kinship, and co‐feeding in captive spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi)

Allo‐grooming is perhaps the most powerful affiliative behavior observed in non‐human primates. However, the functional significance of grooming in New World monkeys has not yet been fully understood, perhaps because grooming is less frequently observed in platyrrhines. To differentiate the potential role of affiliative investment and/or kinship on sharing access to food (co‐feeding) in spider monkeys, behavioral data on grooming, embracing, and feeding were collected from two different groups of captive study subjects: a familiar/kin group and a non‐familiar/non‐kin group. The results of this study suggest that family‐related spider monkeys that engage in grooming tend to share access to food resources more than unfamiliar conspecifics that do not groom. One explanation for this difference is that the unfamiliar study subjects had not yet invested in the affiliative social network, were not reciprocating their affiliative investments and hence, had a higher tendency toward single animal monopolizing resources. Degree of relatedness alone was not found to be a determinant for sharing the access to food, suggesting that familiarity in spider monkeys is based on the extent to which animals invest in affiliative relationships. In this study, only animals that had engaged in long‐term grooming and recognized each other as familiar shared the access to food. Therefore, it might be likely that in spider monkeys, long‐term grooming of high intensity has to be developed for co‐feeding to occur. Zoo Biol 20:293–303, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The usefulness of semi‐solid medium in the isolation of highly virulent Leptospira strains from wild rats in an urban area of Fukuoka,Japan

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. The importance of urban leptospirosis is recognized in Japan: urban rats carry pathogenic leptospires and people acquire these pathogens through contact with surface water or soil contaminated by the urine of the infected animals. To determine the current Leptospira carriage rate in urban rats, 29 wild rats were trapped in the central area of Fukuoka and strains isolated from their kidneys and urine analyzed. When semi‐solid Korthof's medium containing 0.1% agar was used for isolation, 72.2% and 30.8% of the kidney and urine cultures, respectively, were found to be Leptospira‐positive. The isolates belonged to Leptospira interrogans, and were classified into two groups (serogroups Pomona and Icterohaemorrhagiae) based on the results of gyrB sequence analysis and microscopic agglutination testing (MAT). Strains belonging to serogroup Icterohemorrhagiae grew well in liquid medium. On the other hand, serogroup Pomona isolates multiplied very little in liquid medium, but did grow in a semi‐solid medium. Although strains belonging to serogroup Pomona have not been recognized as native to Japan, this strain may be widely distributed in urban rats. Representative strains from each group were found to be highly pathogenic to hamsters. Our findings should serve as a warning that it is still possible to become infected with leptospires from wild rats living in inner cities of Japan. Furthermore, the use of semi‐solid medium for culture will improve the isolation rate of leptospires from the kidneys of wild rats.     

Maintenance of female dominance in blue‐eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons) and gray bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur griseus griseus) under semi‐free‐ranging and captive conditions

Several species of Malagasy prosimians are characterized by female dominance, an unusual trait among mammals. We compare the extent to which female dominance is displayed and the mechanisms that are used to maintain dominance in the frugivorous blue‐eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons) and the folivorous gray bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur griseus griseus) housed at the Duke Lemur Center. All dominant–submissive interactions were recorded during 448 hr of focal animal observations. Both species of lemurs exhibited clear patterns of female dominance. However, the two species used aggressive dominance (defined as aggression+submission) and social dominance (defined as submission in the absence of aggression) to different extents in maintaining hierarchies within each group. The adult female blue‐eyed black lemurs used aggressive dominance (e.g., chase, cuff, bite) in more of their dominance interactions (66%) than did the adult female gray bamboo lemurs (40%). In both species, rates of aggressive dominance interactions were higher during feeding versus nonfeeding periods and while in smaller outdoor runs versus larger natural habitat enclosures, but the differences were not significant. Overall blue‐eyed black lemurs exhibit a more aggressive form of female dominance compared to the gray bamboo lemur. Zoo Biol 26:345–361, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Development of predictive models for determining fetal age‐at‐length in belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) and their application toward in situ and ex situ population management

For wild belugas (Delphinapterus leucas), gestation length estimates based on fetal size have produced extreme ranges. Ex situ populations thereby provide unique opportunities to define this important life history event. Accordingly, research with ultrasound was conducted on six beluga whales over 11 gestations with known conception dates to serially measure fetal changes in biparietal diameter (BP), thoracic diameter (TD), thoracic circumference (TC), and total length (TL). Incremental polynomial regression analyses were performed on each fetal measurement to develop predictive models for determining age based on fetal size and days from parturition. Gestation length (n = 11) was a mean 467 ± 5.4 d with male calves (478 ± 8.6 d) experiencing a longer gestation (P = 0.04) than females (457 ± 3.9 d). Age at TL was best described using a 2nd order polynomial model, while linear relationships existed for BPD, TD, and TC. Accuracy was improved for predicting age (P = 0.001) or days prior to parturition (P = 0.038) using data from the first vs. the second half of gestation. The results provide accurate models for aging beluga fetuses based on size in both in situ and ex situ populations.     

Effects of predation risk on the grouping patterns of white‐bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) in Western Amazonia

Predation is proposed to be one of the most important factors influencing the evolution of mammalian societies. Although predation risk is thought to influence both the behavior and grouping patterns of most diurnal primates, evidence supporting this hypothesis is still limited. The spatial and temporal patterns of mineral lick use by one group of white‐bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) were evaluated, based on the growing evidence that mineral licks are perceived as areas of relative high predation risk by Neotropical primates. The area immediately surrounding the mineral lick was the most intensively used area within the home range of the study group, particularly by large subgroups of monkeys, and there were differences in mean subgroup size on days of mineral lick visitation versus days without lick visits. Additionally, on days of mineral lick visitation, subgroup size reached its maximum specifically during the period of lick visitation. Finally, on visit days subgroups showed a greater increase in size and higher fusion rates in the 2 hr before arriving at the lick in comparison with matched time windows on non‐visit days. Together, these results provide an example of how primates employ behavioral strategies that might reduce the effects of predation. This study also demonstrates how taxa characterized by a high degree of fission‐fusion dynamics can allow us to test hypotheses regarding the effects of socioecological variables on primate grouping patterns. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:579–590, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Aggression and social support predict long‐term cortisol levels in captive tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus [Sapajus] apella)

Many nonhuman primates live in complex social groups in which they regularly encounter both social stressors such as aggression and social support such as that provided by long‐term affiliative relationships. Repeated exposure to social stressors may result in chronically elevated cortisol levels that can have deleterious physical effects such as impaired immune function, cardiovascular disease, and reduced brain function. In contrast, affiliative social relationships may act as a buffer, dampening the release of cortisol in response to acute and chronic stressors. Understanding how social stressors and social support predict cortisol levels is therefore essential to understanding how social situations relate to health and welfare. We studied this relationship in 16 socially housed captive brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus [Sapajus] apella) by comparing long‐term hair cortisol levels with behavioral measures of social stress (dominance rank, rank certainty, and amount of aggression received) and social support (amount of affiliation and centrality in the affiliative social network of the group). Dominance rank, rank certainty, amount of affiliation, and age were not significant predictors of long‐term cortisol levels in this population. Instead, long‐term cortisol levels were positively related to the amount of aggression received and negatively related to centrality in the affiliative social network of the group. This pattern may be attributed to the species’ socially tolerant dominance system and to the availability of social support across the dominance hierarchy.     

Evidence of widespread effects of ozone on crops and (semi‐)natural vegetation in Europe (1990–2006) in relation to AOT40‐ and flux‐based risk maps

Records of effects of ambient ozone pollution on vegetation have been compiled for Europe for the years 1990–2006. Sources include scientific papers, conference proceedings, reports to research funders, records of confirmed ozone injury symptoms and an international biomonitoring experiment coordinated by the ICP Vegetation. The latter involved ozone‐sensitive (NC‐S) and ozone‐resistant (NC‐R) biotypes of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) grown according to a common protocol and monitored for ozone injury and biomass differences in 17 European countries, from 1996 to 2006. Effects were separated into visible injury or growth/yield reduction. Of the 644 records of visible injury, 39% were for crops (27 species), 38.1% were for (semi‐) natural vegetation (95 species) and 22.9% were for shrubs (49 species). Owing to inconsistencies in reporting effort from year to year it was not possible to determine geographical or temporal trends in the data. Nevertheless, this study has shown effects in ambient air in 18 European countries from Sweden in the north to Greece in the south. These effects data were superimposed on AOT40 (accumulated ozone concentrations over 40 ppb) and POD3_gen (modelled accumulated stomatal flux over a threshold of 3 nmol m^?2 s^?1) maps generated by the EMEP Eulerian model (50 km × 50 km grid) that were parameterized for a generic crop based on wheat and NC‐S/NC‐R white clover. Many effects were found in areas where the AOT40 (crops) was below the critical level of 3 ppm h. In contrast, the majority of effects were detected in grid squares where POD3_gen (crops) were in the mid‐high range (>12 mmol m^?2). Overall, maps based on POD3_gen provided better fit to the effects data than those based on AOT40, with the POD3_gen model for clover fitting the clover effects data better than that for a generic crop.