Nano-biotechnology in tumour and cancerous disease: A perspective review

In recent years, drug manufacturers and researchers have begun to consider the nanobiotechnology approach to improve the drug delivery system for tumour and cancer diseases. In this article, we review current strategies to improve tumour and cancer drug delivery, which mainly focuses on sustaining biocompatibility, biodistribution, and active targeting. The conventional therapy using cornerstone drugs such as fludarabine, cisplatin etoposide, and paclitaxel has its own challenges especially not being able to discriminate between tumour versus normal cells which eventually led to toxicity and side effects in the patients. In contrast to the conventional approach, nanoparticle-based drug delivery provides target-specific delivery and controlled release of the drug, which provides a better therapeutic window for treatment options by focusing on the eradication of diseased cells via active targeting and sparing normal cells via passive targeting. Additionally, treatment of tumours associated with the brain is hampered by the impermeability of the blood–brain barriers to the drugs, which eventually led to poor survival in the patients. Nanoparticle-based therapy offers superior delivery of drugs to the target by breaching the blood–brain barriers. Herein, we provide an overview of the properties of nanoparticles that are crucial for nanotechnology applications. We address the potential future applications of nanobiotechnology targeting specific or desired areas. In particular, the use of nanomaterials, biostructures, and drug delivery methods for the targeted treatment of tumours and cancer are explored.     

Targeting oncogenic signaling pathways by exploiting nanotechnology

Two scientific areas have recently emerged that can revolutionize cancer chemotherapy. First, an understanding of the different cellular signaling pathways implicated in the development and progression of cancer resulting in poor prognosis and drug resistance, have identified potential drug targets. Inhibitors of signal transduction pathways are currently in the clinics. Secondly, nanotechnology has emerged as an exciting multidisciplinary field promising to provide breakthrough solutions to the problems of optimizing the efficacy or therapeutic index of anticancer agents. The promise of nanotechnology lies in the ability to engineer customizable nanoscale constructs that can be loaded with one or more payloads such as chemotherapeutics, targeting units, imaging and diagnostic agents. This review addresses the potential integration of these two approaches to engineer nanoparticles that can target various signal transduction pathways in cancer.     

Gold nanoparticles: Emerging paradigm for targeted drug delivery system

The application of nanotechnology in medicine, known as nanomedicine, has introduced a plethora of nanoparticles of variable chemistry and design considerations for cancer diagnosis and treatment. One of the most important field is the design and development of pharmaceutical drugs, based on targeted drug delivery system (TDDS). Being inspired by physio-chemical properties of nanoparticles, TDDS are designed to safely reach their targets and specifically release their cargo at the site of disease for enhanced therapeutic effects, thereby increasing the drug tissue bioavailability. Nanoparticles have the advantage of targeting cancer by simply being accumulated and entrapped in cancer cells. However, even after rapid growth of nanotechnology in nanomedicine, designing an effective targeted drug delivery system is still a challenging task. In this review, we reveal the recent advances in drug delivery approach with a particular focus on gold nanoparticles. We seek to expound on how these nanomaterials communicate in the complex environment to reach the target site, and how to design the effective TDDS for complex environments and simultaneously monitor the toxicity on the basis of designing such delivery complexes. Hence, this review will shed light on the research, opportunities and challenges for engineering nanomaterials with cancer biology and medicine to develop effective TDDS for treatment of cancer.     

Nano-Biotechnology and Challenges of Drug Delivery System in Cancer Treatment Pathway: Review Article

In this review, we discuss Nanotechnology models, which have been developed recently in cancer treatment. Nanotechnology manipulates matter at the atomic and molecular scale to create materials with new and advanced properties. Nano-biotechnology consists of the branches of nanotechnology that have been applied in biology (molecular and cellular genetics) and biotechnology. Nano-biotechnology allows us to put components and compounds into cells and build new materials using new methods like assembly. Cancer is a disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body. Its therapeutic methods include chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery, but the effects of these techniques are not only on tumor tissue and may affect healthy tissues. Nano-Biotech applications regarding cancer include drug delivery, treatment, and foresight therapy. This review article aims to obtain a proper mentality of the current technologies of Nano-biotechnology for cancer treatment.     

Engineered nanoparticles as precise drug delivery systems

With the remarkable development of nanotechnology in recent years, new drug delivery approaches based on the state-of-the-art nanotechnology have been receiving significant attention. Nanoparticles, an evolvement of nanotechnology, are increasingly considered as a potential candidate to carry therapeutic agents safely into a targeted compartment in an organ, particular tissue or cell. These particles are colloidal structures with a diameter smaller than 1,000 nm, and therefore can penetrate through diminutive capillaries into the cell's internal machinery. This innovative delivery technique might be a promising technology to meet the current challenges in drug delivery. When loaded with a gene or drug agent, nanoparticles can become nanopills, which can effectively treat problematical diseases such as cancer. This article summarizes different types of nanoparticles drug delivery systems under investigation and their prospective therapeutic applications. Also, this article presents a closer look at the advances, current challenges, and future direction of nanoparticles drug delivery systems.     

Shining light on nanotechnology to help repair and regeneration

Phototherapy can be used in two completely different but complementary therapeutic applications. While low level laser (or light) therapy (LLLT) uses red or near-infrared light alone to reduce inflammation, pain and stimulate tissue repair and regeneration, photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses the combination of light plus non-toxic dyes (called photosensitizers) to produce reactive oxygen species that can kill infectious microorganisms and cancer cells or destroy unwanted tissue (neo-vascularization in the choroid, atherosclerotic plaques in the arteries). The recent development of nanotechnology applied to medicine (nanomedicine) has opened a new front of advancement in the field of phototherapy and has provided hope for the development of nanoscale drug delivery platforms for effective killing of pathological cells and to promote repair and regeneration. Despite the well-known beneficial effects of phototherapy and nanomaterials in producing the killing of unwanted cells and promoting repair and regeneration, there are few reports that combine all three elements i.e. phototherapy, nanotechnology and, tissue repair and regeneration. However, these areas in all possible binary combinations have been addressed by many workers. The present review aims at highlighting the combined multi-model applications of phototherapy, nanotechnology and, reparative and regeneration medicine and outlines current strategies, future applications and limitations of nanoscale-assisted phototherapy for the management of cancers, microbial infections and other diseases, and to promote tissue repair and regeneration.     

Application of nanotechnology in biomedicine

Nanotechnology is the development of engineered devices at the atomic, molecular and macromolecular level in nanometer range. Nanoparticles have potential application in medical field including diagnostics and therapeutics. Nanotechnology devices are being developed for diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases which can help in early detection of the disease. Advances in nanotechnology also proved beneficial in therapeutic field such as drug discovery, drug delivery and gene/protein delivery. Nanoparticles can be constructed by various methodology so that effect can be targeted at desired site. In this review, some of the applications of nanoparticles in medicine as diagnostics and therapeutics which can be employed safely at the clinical level have been described. On other hand, as the particles become generally smaller their likehood of causing harm to the lung increases. Therefore, there is a need to study safety of nanoparticles.     

DNA折纸纳米载体在药物递送中的应用

DNA纳米技术是基于沃森克里克碱基配对原则产生可编程核酸结构的技术。因其具有高精度的工程设计、前所未有的可编程性和内在的生物相容性等特点，运用该技术合成的纳米结构不仅可以与小分子、核酸、蛋白质、病毒和癌细胞相互作用，还可以作为纳米载体，递送不同的治疗药物。DNA折纸作为一种有效的、多功能的方法来构建二维和三维可编程的纳米结构，是DNA纳米技术发展的一个里程碑。由于其高度可控的几何形状、空间寻址性、易于化学修饰，DNA折纸在许多领域具有巨大的应用潜力。本文通过介绍DNA折纸的起源、基本原理和目前进展，归纳总结了运用DNA折纸进行药物装载和释放的方式，并基于此技术，展望了今后的发展趋势以及所面临的机遇和挑战。     

Improved biochemical strategies for targeted delivery of taxoids

Paclitaxel (Taxol) and docetaxel (Taxotere) are very important anti-tumor drugs in clinical use for cancer. However, their clinical utility is limited due to systemic toxicity, low solubility and inactivity against drug resistant tumors. To improve chemotherapeutic levels of these drugs, it would be highly desirable to design strategies which bypass the above limitations. In this respect various prodrug and drug targeting strategies have been envisioned either to improve oral bioavailability or tumor specific delivery of taxoids. Abnormal properties of cancer cells with respect to normal cells have guided in designing of these protocols. This review article records the designed biochemical strategies and their biological efficacies as potential taxoid chemotherapeutics.     

From Nutraceuticals to Pharmaceuticals to Nanopharmaceuticals: A Case Study in Angiogenesis Modulation During Oxidative Stress

This report reviews the potential applications of nanotechnology in various therapeutics and diagnostics areas with special emphasis on key frontiers in angiogenesis modulation using naturally driven drug targets including compounds that modulate oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways for the potential treatment of vascular, cancer, inflammatory, and ocular disorders. Recent advances of the nanotechnology mediated gene delivery are also described in this paper.     

Nanomaterials in controlled drug release

In past years with the advances of chemistry and material sciences, the development of nanotechnology brought generations of nanomaterials with specific biomedical properties. These include the nanoparticle-based drug delivery, nanosized drugs, and nanomaterials for tissue engineering. The present article focuses on the use of nanomaterials in controlled drug release. The applications of nanomaterials with nano-enabled drug release characteristics brought many benefits when compared to the traditional (bulk) materials. We discuss the current advances and propose some future directions for the technology development.     

Engineered magnetic core shell nanoprobes:Synthesis and applications to cancer imaging and therapeutics

Magnetic core shell nanoparticles are composed of a highly magnetic core material surrounded by a thin shell of desired drug, polymer or metal oxide. These magnetic core shell nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in biomedical research, more specifically in tissue imaging, drug delivery and therapeutics. The present review discusses the up-to-date knowledge on the various procedures for synthesis of magnetic core shell nanoparticles along with their applications in cancer imaging, drug delivery and hyperthermia or cancer therapeutics. Literature in this area shows that magnetic core shell nanoparticle-based imaging, drug targeting and therapy through hyperthermia can potentially be a powerful tool for the advanced diagnosis and treatment of various cancers.     

The role of multiscale computational approaches for rational design of conventional and nanoparticle oral drug delivery systems

Multiscale computational modeling of drug delivery systems (DDS) is poised to provide predictive capabilities for the rational design of targeted drug delivery systems, including multi-functional nanoparticles. Realistic, mechanistic models can provide a framework for understanding the fundamental physico-chemical interactions between drug, delivery system, and patient. Multiscale computational modeling, however, is in its infancy even for conventional drug delivery. The wide range of emerging nanotechnology systems for targeted delivery further increases the need for reliable in silico predictions. This review will present existing computational approaches at different scales in the design of traditional oral drug delivery systems. Subsequently, a multiscale framework for integrating continuum, stochastic, and computational chemistry models will be proposed and a case study will be presented for conventional DDS. The extension of this framework to emerging nanotechnology delivery systems will be discussed along with future directions. While oral delivery is the focus of the review, the outlined computational approaches can be applied to other drug delivery systems as well.     

Production and characterization of gamma-polyglutamic acid nanoparticles for controlled anticancer drug release

Gamma-polyglutamic acid (gamma-PGA) is a hydrophilic, biodegradable, and naturally available biopolymer produced by a number of microbial species, most commonly, the Bacillaceae family. Its biological properties such as nontoxicity, biocompatibility, and nonimmunogenicity qualify it as an important biomaterial in drug delivery applications. This review focuses mainly on the development of gamma-PGA nanoparticles as drug delivery carriers for anticancer therapeutics. We discuss various techniques for the production and characterization of gamma-PGA nanoparticles and controlled-release strategies. We also present a brief overview of the tumor physiology that forms the basis for the development of various targeted drug delivery approaches in cancer chemotherapy.     

Au nanostructures: an emerging prospect in cancer theranostics

Au nanoparticles have been used in biomedical applications since ancient times. However, the rapid development of nanotechnology over the past century has led to recognition of the great potential of Au nanoparticles in a wide range of applications. Advanced fabrication techniques allow us to synthesize a variety of Au nanostructures possessing physiochemical properties that can be exploited for different purposes. Functionalization of the surface of Au nanoparticles further eases their application in various roles. These advantages of Au nanoparticles make them particularly suited for cancer treatment and diagnosis. The small size of Au particles enables them to preferentially accumulate at tumor sites to achieve in vivo targeting after systemic administration. Efficient light absorption followed by rapid heat conversion makes them very promising in photothermal therapy. The facile surface chemistry of Au nanoparticles eases delivery of drugs, ligands or imaging contrast agents in vivo. In this review, we summarize recent development of Au nanoparticles in cancer theranostics including imaging-based detection, photothermal therapy, chemical therapy and drug delivery. The multifunctional nature of Au nanoparticles means they hold great promise as novel anti-cancer therapeutics.     

Tumor extracellular acidity-activated nanoparticles as drug delivery systems for enhanced cancer therapy

pH-responsive nanoparticles (NPs) are currently under intense development as drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. Among various pH-responsiveness, NPs that are designed to target slightly acidic extracellular pH environment (pH_e) of solid tumors provide a new paradigm of tumor targeted drug delivery. Compared to conventional specific surface targeting approaches, the pH_e-targeting strategy is considered to be more general due to the common occurrence of acidic microenvironment in solid tumors. This review mainly focuses on the design and applications of pH_e-activated NPs, with special emphasis on pH_e-activated surface charge reversal NPs, for drug and siRNA delivery to tumors. The novel development of NPs described here offers great potential for achieving better therapeutic effects in cancer treatment.     

The biochemical and molecular mechanisms involved in the role of tumor micro-environment stress in development of drug resistance

BackgroundMulti-drug resistance (MDR) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in cancer and it continues to be a challenge in cancer treatment. Moreover, the tumor micro-environment is essential to the formation of drug resistant cancers. Recent evidence indicates that the tumor micro-environment is a critical regulator of cancer progression, distant metastasis and acquired resistance of tumors to various therapies. Despite significant advances in chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the development of therapeutic resistance leads to reduced drug efficacy.Scope of reviewThis review highlights mechanistic aspects of the biochemistry of the tumor micro-enviroment, such as the hypoglycaemia, reactive oxygen species (ROS), hypoxia and their effects in propagating MDR. This is achieved through: (A) increased survival via autophagy and failure of apoptosis; (B) altered metabolic processing; and (C) reduction in drug delivery and uptake or increased drug efflux.Major conclusionsThe development of MDR in cancer has been demonstrated to be majorly influenced by naturally occurring stressors within the tumor micro-environment, as well as chemotherapeutics. Thus, the tumor micro-environment is currently emerging as a major focus of research which needs to be carefully addressed before cancer can be successfully treated.General significanceElucidating the biochemical mechanisms which promote MDR is essential in development of effective therapeutics that can overcome these acquired defences in cancer cells.     

Multifunctional nanoparticles--properties and prospects for their use in human medicine

A major aim of medicine has long been the early and accurate diagnosis of clinical conditions, providing an efficient treatment without secondary effects. With the emergence of nanotechnology, the achievement of this goal seems closer than ever. To this end, the development of novel materials and devices operating at the nanoscale range, such as nanoparticles, provides new and powerful tools for imaging, diagnosis and therapy. This review focuses on the significant improvements in performance that nanoparticles offer compared with existing technologies relevant to medicine. Specifically, we address the design of multifunctional nanoparticles as an alternative system for drug and gene delivery, which has great potential for therapy in areas, such as cancer and neuropathologies. Moreover, we discuss the controversy generated by the possible toxic health effects of nanoparticles.     

Growth inhibition of human ovarian carcinoma by a novel AvidinOX-anchored biotinylated camptothecin derivative

Oxidized form of avidin, named AvidinOX, provides stable fixation of biotinylated molecules in tissues thus representing a breakthrough in topical treatment of cancer. AvidinOX proved to be a stable receptor for radiolabeled biotin, biotinylated antibodies and cells. In order to expand applicability of the AvidinOX-based delivery platform, in the present study we investigated the possibility to hold biotinylated chemotherapeutics in AvidinOX-treated sites. A novel biotinylated gimatecan-derived camptothecin, coded ST8161AA1, was injected at suboptimal doses into human tumors xenografted in mice alone or pre-complexed to AvidinOX. Significantly higher growth inhibition was observed when the drug was anchored to AvidinOX suggesting the potential utility of this delivery modality for the local treatment of inoperable tumors.     

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems

In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in the development of novel drug delivery systems using nanotechnology. Nanoparticles represent a promising drug delivery system of controlled and targeted release. In this context, nanosuspensions will be effective in increasing the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. This review focuses on advantages, method of preparation, physical characteristics, and evaluation of drug nanosuspensions.