Cultivar variation in methane efflux from tropical rice

Wide variation in CH4 flux was noticed among the ten rice cultivars grown under uniform field conditions. Cumulative CH4 flux ranged from 4.61 g m-2 to 20.25 g m-2. The rice cultivars could be ranked into three groups based on their CH4 flux potential. Rice cultivars could also be arranged based on their peak CH4 emission occurring either at vegetative, reproductive or at both growth stages. Of the several variables studied (root region redox potential, above- and underground biomass, grain and straw yield, duration of the crop, percent area occupied by the air space and root oxidase activity), only oxidase activity of the root tip exhibited a significant (negative) correlation with CH4 flux indicating an indirect effect of root oxidation potential on CH4 flux. Data presented in this study, demonstrate inherent variation in CH4 flux among different rice cultivars that can be used for developing future mitigation options.     

Role of rice in mediating methane emission

Methane emitted at different plant conditions through the different organs of rice plants was studied using a closed chamber technique under the laboratory, phytotron, and greenhouse conditions in order to clarify and quantify the role of different organs of rice plant as methane emission sites. Rice plants grown in flooded soils emit methane to the atmosphere via the aerenchyma of leaves, nodes and panicles. Emission through the rice plants is controlled by diffusion. No methane is emitted via the transpiration stream. Leaves are the major release sites at the early growth stage while nodes become more important later. Cracks and porous structure were found in the nodes. Panicles generally contribute little to methane emission. Increasing water depth temporarily reduces methane emission while concentration gradients in rice plants readjust to unsubmerged emission sites. Methane emissions in rice plants cease only when the plants become totally submerged.     

不同生长期盆栽大豆的土壤呼吸昼夜变化及其影响因子

通过盆栽试验 ,用静态箱法采样 ,气相色谱测定样品 CO2 浓度 ,分别在大豆开花期、结荚期和鼓粒期测定土壤呼吸速率 ,研究大豆不同生长期土壤呼吸的昼夜变化规律及其主要影响因素。在结荚期灌水后测定土壤呼吸速率 ,以研究水分对土壤呼吸昼夜变化的影响。结果表明在大豆不同生长期中 ,土壤呼吸均具有明显的昼夜变化规律 ,且均呈单峰曲线型 ,峰值出现在 12 :0 0到 16 :0 0之间。6 :0 0～ 18:0 0的 CO2 排放占总排放的 6 1%～ 6 9% ,昼夜平均土壤呼吸速率最接近于 18:0 0～ 2 1:0 0之间的速率。如果忽略大豆生长对土壤有机质分解的激发效应 ,大豆根际呼吸占总土壤呼吸的 85 %～ 96 %。裸土土壤呼吸与温度呈极显著的指数和线性相关 ,种大豆的土壤呼吸与温度的关系因生长期而异 ,鼓粒期的相关性最好 ,结荚期最差。这些都说明大豆生长和生长阶段影响土壤呼吸及其与温度的关系。灌水后使大豆土壤呼吸昼夜变化增强 ,平均土壤呼吸速率增大。由此可见植物生长时期、温度和水分是影响土壤呼吸昼夜变化的主要因素     

Diurnal variation in methane emission in relation to the water table,soil temperature,climate and vegetation cover in a Swedish acid mire

Diurnal variation in the rate of methane emission and its relation to water table depth and macro climate was studied in several plant communities within an acid,Sphagnum dominated, mixed mire in Northern Sweden. Provided that diurnal variation in solar radiation and air temperature occurred, methane fluxes differed during day and night. Diurnal patterns in methane emission rates were found to differ among mire plant communities. In relatively dry plant communities (ridges, minerotrophic lawn), the average nighttime emission rates were 2–3 times higher than the daytime rates during the two periods with high diurnal variation in solar radiation and air temperature. Methane emission was significantly (p < 0.05) related to solar radiation and soil temperature at depths of 5 and 10 cm at all sampling points in the dry plant communities. In the wetter plant communities, no significant difference between daytime and nighttime average methane emission rates were found even though methane emissions were significantly related with radiation and soil temperature at approximately 70% of the sampling points. The increased emission rate for methane at night in the comparatively dry plant communities was probably caused by an inhibition of methane oxidation, owing to the lower nighttime temperatures or to a delay in the supply of root-exuded substrate for the anaerobic bacteria, or by both. The pattern observed in the wet plant communities indicated that methane production were positively related either to soil temperature or light-regulated root exudation.     

Long-term growth at elevated carbon dioxide stimulates methane emission in tropical paddy rice

Recent anthropogenic emissions of key atmospheric trace gases (e.g. CO₂ and CH₄) which absorb infra-red radiation may lead to an increase in mean surface temperatures and potential changes in climate. Although sources of each gas have been evaluated independently, little attention has focused on potential interactions between gases which could influence emission rates. In the current experiment, the effect of enhanced CO₂ (300 μL L^–1 above ambient) and/or air temperature (4 °C above ambient) on methane generation and emission were determined for the irrigated tropical paddy rice system over 3 consecutive field seasons (1995 wet and dry seasons 1996 dry season). For all three seasons, elevated CO₂ concentration resulted in a significant increase in dissolved soil methane relative to the ambient control. Consistent with the observed increases in soil methane, measurements of methane flux per unit surface area during the 1995 wet and 1996 dry seasons also showed a significant increase at elevated carbon dioxide concentration relative to the ambient CO₂ condition (+49 and 60% for each season, respectively). Growth of rice at both increasing CO₂ concentration and air temperature did not result in additional stimulation of either dissolved or emitted methane compared to growth at elevated CO₂ alone. The observed increase in methane emissions were associated with a large, consistent, CO₂-induced stimulation of root growth. Results from this experiment suggest that as atmospheric CO₂ concentration increases, methane emissions from tropical paddy rice could increase above current projections.     

不同生长期转Bt基因水稻秸杆还土对淹水土壤酶活性的影响

在实验室条件下通过秸杆还土试验比较了不同生长期转Bt基因克螟稻及其亲本稻秸杆对淹水土壤酶活性的影响。研究结果表明,与同一生长期的亲本稻秸杆相比,孕穗期和成熟期克螟稻秸杆对淹水土壤磷酸酶活性的影响较小;相反,对淹水土壤脱氢酶活性的影响非常显著,并且孕穗期秸杆与成熟期秸杆的添加对淹水土壤脱氢酶活性的影响趋势也存在较大差异。推测造成淹水土壤脱氢酶活性的显著性差异的主要原因可能是由于Bt插入基因表达的多效性所致。结果认为土壤脱氢酶活性可作为转Bt基因水稻生态安全风险性评价的潜在指标。     

Impact of phosphorus supply on root exudation, aerenchyma formation and methane emission of rice plants

This study evaluated the impact of P supply on rice plant development and the methane budget of rice fields by 2 different approaches: (1) root growth, exudation and aerenchyma formation were recorded in an experiment with hydroponic solution; (2) dissolved CH₄ concentration and CH₄ emission were investigated in a pot experiment. In both approaches, we used three different cultivars and three levels of P supply. In the experiment with solution culture (0.5 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10 ppm P), root exudation ranged between 0.5 to 36.7 mol C plant^–1 h^–1 and increased steadily with plant growth at given P level. Low P supply resulted in

Effect of gas pressure in the root and stem base zone on methane transport through rice bodies

Ebullition of gas bubbles from the soil surface is, in some cases (e.g., in early growth stage of rice), one of the major pathways for methane transport from rice paddies to the atmosphere. However, the role of the gas phase (entrapped gas) in the paddy soil in plant-mediated methane transport, which is the major pathway for methane emission, has not been clarified. To clarify the effect of the gas phase below ground on the methane emission rate through rice plants, we partly exposed the root and stem base of hydroponically grown rice to a high concentration of methane gas at various gas pressures, and immersed the rest of the roots in a solution with a high methane concentration. The methane emission rate was measured from the top of the rice plant using a flow-through chamber method. The methane emission rate drastically increased with a small increase in gas pressure in the gas phase at the root and stem base zone, with about a 3 times larger emission rate being observed with 10 × 10^-3 atm of extra pressure (corresponding to 10 cm of standing water in rice paddy) compared to no extra pressure. However, when alginate was applied to the stem near the base to prevent contact with the gas phase, the methane emission rate did not increase with increasing gas pressure. On the other hand, from observations in the rice paddy, it was found that the gas is entrapped near the surface (e.g., at a depth of 1 cm) and the gas entrapped in the soil would come into direct contact with a part of the stem near the base of the rice plant. Thus, the gas entrapped in the soil could enter into the rice body directly from the part of the stem near the base which is beneath the soil surface due to gas pressure in the gas phase resulting from the pressure exerted by the standing water. Hence, this mechanism involving the entrapped gas could play an important role in methane emission from rice paddy by affecting the plant-mediated methane transport as well as ebullition of gas bubbles.     

不同树龄杨树(Populus balsamifera)人工林的土壤呼吸空间异质性

土壤呼吸作用的空间异质性对土壤碳收支的准确评估起重要作用.通过对新疆伊犁地区3个生长阶段杨树人工林的土壤呼吸速率、土壤环境因子和细根生物量的测定,分析了土壤呼吸速率的空间变异及其影响因素.结果表明:在整个生长季,土壤呼吸空间变异系数(CV)为5.7％ ～42.6％.2、7和12年生杨树人工林的平均土壤呼吸速率分别为5.74、5.10和4.71 μmol·m-2·s-1,空间变异系数分别为28.8％、22.4％和19.6％,差异显著.逐步回归分析表明,5 cm土壤温度、表层土壤氮含量及细根生物量是决定土壤呼吸空间异质性的主要因子,可以共同解释86％的土壤呼吸变异.此外,由于测点距树干的位置不同,使土壤温度和细根生物量等因子发生了改变,也会导致土壤呼吸的空间变异.在估算杨树人工林土壤碳排放量时,应考虑其在不同生长阶段土壤呼吸速率的空间变异.     

Root growth and distribution of two short-season rice genotypes

Root growth dynamics of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) throughout the growing season are poorly understood. A field experiment was conducted in 1987 to compare root growth and distribution of two rice genotypes at two Arkansas locations on soils with different physical and chemical properties. Two genotypes, Bond and an experimental line (RU8701084), were grown on a Captina silt loam (Typic Fragiudults) at Fayetteville, AR, and on a Crowley silt loam (Typic Albaqualfs) near Stuttgart, Ar. Plots contained minirhizotrons oriented at a 45° angle and extended 55 cm (Captina) and 40 cm (Crowley) vertical to the soil surface. Root measurements were taken several times during the season at specific growth stages. Plant height and tiller number were taken at 9 dates at Fayetteville up to physiological maturity. In general, root length (RL) and root length density (RLD) were greater on the Captina soil. Genotypes at both locations reached maximum root growth rates between active tillering and panicle initiation (PI) and maximum RL by early reproduction. Total RL were similar between genotypes on the Captina. However on the Crowley, the mean RL for Bond between the period of early booting and flood removal was an average of 54% greater than for RU8701084. During early reproductive growth at both locations RL plateaued, but then declined during the grain filling process. There was a trend for RU8701084 to contain a greater percentage of its total RL in the top 20 and 10 cm of soil on the Captina and Crowley, respectively, while Bond tended to be a deeper rooted genotype. Bond had a greater RLD at the 20–30 cm depth increment on the Crowley, which contributed to the greater RL. Less than 15% of the total RL of either genotype was measured below 30 cm on the Crowley. In contrast, nearly 25% of the total RL was found at the 30–40 cm depth increment on the Captina. Results showed that rice root growth varied between soils, that root distribution patterns differed between genotypes, and that patterns of root growth changed with changes in plant development.     

紫花苜蓿叶性状对干旱的阶段性响应

通过盆栽控水试验,研究了不同生育时期陇东苜蓿(Medicago sativa L.cv.Longdong)叶性状对不同程度干旱的响应。结果表明:(1)随干旱加重,叶干物质含量(LDMC)、叶氮含量(LN)、比叶重(LMA)、叶厚(LT)上升,叶面积(LA)减小,叶磷含量(LP)无明显变化,叶绿素含量(Chl)和叶长宽比(L/W)波动较大。(2)随生育时期的延长,LT、LDMC、L/W和LA变化不明显,LN下降,LP呈倒"V"型趋势,LMA和Chl波动较大。(3)L/W与LN、LT显著负相关;LDMC与LT、LMA显著正相关;LMA与LT、LN显著正相关,与L/W、LP显著负相关;LN与LT显著正相关;LA与LP显著正相关,与LDMC、LMA、LN显著负相关;Chl与其他叶性状均不相关。尽管干旱下陇东苜蓿不同生育时期叶性状响应并未表现出一致的变化,叶性状的差异性变化还是部分反映了陇东苜蓿适应干旱而采取的综合策略。从不同生育时期的差异性反应角度出发,探讨干旱下的叶性状响应是阐明优良牧草紫花苜蓿水分适应性的新的尝试。     

不同水分管理模式下免耕抛秧水稻立苗期根系生长特性

在免耕条件下,对3种水分管理模式(水层淹灌、干湿交替灌溉和湿润灌溉)的立苗期根系特性进行了研究。结果表明,除抛栽后第2天,无论晚季或早季,整个立苗期干湿交替灌溉处理的根冠比、单株根生物量、总根数、白根数、一次分枝数量、根系活力、发根力均显著或极显著高于水层淹灌和湿润灌溉处理。水层淹灌处理利于二次分枝根的发生与根系的伸长。湿润灌溉处理更能促进早季稻根毛区生长。     

Diurnal variation of chosen airborne pollen at five sites in Poland

The aerobiological investigations were carriedout at five sites located in different climaticand geobotanical regions in Poland. The diurnalperiodicity of Alnus, Betula, Secale,Poaceae, Urtica, and Artemisia wasstudied during two successive years. The taxawere chosen on the basis of pollen grainabundance and allergenity. The pollen wascollected with a Burkard spore trap. Twelvetransversal transverses of microscope slidescorresponding to two-hour periods wereanalysed. The diurnal variations ofPoaceae, Alnus and Betula were irregularand varied between sites and years; highconcentrations were observed at different hoursof the day and night. Diurnal concentrations of Secale, Urtica and Artemisia hadonly one maximum in the middle of the day,constant between sites and years. The lowestconcentrations were observed between eveningand early morning. There was no close relationbetween the time of the liberation ofAlnus, Betula and Poaceae pollen and thetime of the maximum pollen counts. There was aseveral hour delay observed between the timeof Secale pollen liberation and maximumconcentration of airborne pollen.     

The dependence of methane transport in rice plants on the root zone temperature

Large diurnal and seasonal variations in methane flux from rice paddies have been found in many studies. Although these variations are considered to result from changes in methane formation rates in the soil and the transport capacity (e.g. biomass, physiological activities, and so on) of rice plants, the real reasons for such variations are as yet unclear. This study was conducted to clarify the effects of temperature on the rate of methane transport from the root zone to the atmosphere using hydroponically grown rice plants. Methane emission rates from the top of the rice plants whose roots were soaked in a solution with a high methane concentration were measured using a flow-through chamber method with the top or root of the rice plants being kept at various temperatures. The methane emission rates and methane concentrations in solution were analyzed using a diffusion model which assumes that the methane emission from a rice paddy is driven by molecular diffusion through rice plants by a concentration gradient. In the experiment where the temperature around the root was changed, the conductance for methane diffusion was typically 2.0-2.2 times larger when the solution temperature was changed from 15 to 30 °C. When the air temperature surrounding the top of the rice plant was changed, the change in conductance was much less. In addition, from measurements of methane flux and methane concentration in soil water in a lysimeter rice paddy during the 2 growing seasons of rice, it was found that the conductance for methane transport was correlated with the soil temperature at 5 cm depth. These results suggest that the temperature around the root greatly affects the methane transport process in rice plants, and that the process of passing through the root is important in determining the rate of methane transport through rice plants.     

Seasonal variation in methane flux from rice paddies associated with methane concentration in soil water,rice biomass and temperature,and its modelling

To attempt to develop physicochemical and physiological modelling for methane transport from the rhizosphere to the atmosphere through rice plants, methane flux, methane concentration in the soil water, and the biomass of rice were measured in lysimeter rice paddies (2.5 × 4 m, depth 2.0 m) once per week throughout the entire growing season in 1992 at Tsukuba, Japan. The addition of exogenous organic matter (rice straw) or soil amendments with the presence or absence of vegetation were also examined for their influence on methane emissions. The total methane emission over the growing season varied from 3.2 g CH₄ m^-2 y^-1 without the addition of rice straw to 49.7 g CH₄ m^-2 y^-1 with rice straw and microbiological amendment. In the unvegetated plot with the addition of rice straw, there was much ebullition of gas bubbles, particularly in the summer. The annual methane emission due to the ebullition of gas bubbles,from the unvegetated plot with the addition of rice straw was estimated to be almost the same as that from the vegetated site with the addition of rice straw. In the early growth stage, the methane flux can be analyzed by the diffusion model (Flux=Methane concentration × Conductance of rice body) using parameters for methane concentration in the soil water as a difference in concentration between the atmosphere and the rhizosphere, and for the biomass of rice as a conductance of rice body. On the other hand, although the diffusion model was inapplicable to a large extent from the middle to late growth stage, methane flux could be estimated by air temperature and concentration in the soil water. Thus, methane transport from the rhizosphere to the atmosphere through rice plants consisted of two phases: one was an explainable small part by diffusion in rice body; the other was a large part strongly, governed by air temperature. The existence of gas bubbles in the soil may be related to the transition between the two phases     

叶绿体基因编码蛋白质在水稻叶片生长过程中的表达研究

叶绿体是绿色植物把光能转化为化学能的重要细胞器.目前,多种植物的叶绿体基因组序列已经获得,对叶绿体内发生的各种生物学过程人们也已经有相当深入的了解,但对叶绿体基因编码蛋白质的表达还所知甚少.用蛋白质印迹实验系统地检测了15个叶绿体基因编码蛋白质在水稻叶片不同生长时期的表达.其中7个与光合作用相关蛋白质的表达具有相似的模式,其表达量随叶片生长而增加,一般在孕穗期、开花期达到最高峰,在成熟期叶片下降,这种模式与水稻生长对光合作用的需求有明显相关性.4个与DNA复制相关的RNA聚合酶在苗期叶片中表达量达到最高,说明这些聚合酶在较早时期发挥作用.4个NADH脱氢酶蛋白质的表达呈2种不同的模式,其中亚基2和4在种子萌发后的早期叶片中就达到最高峰,亚基5和7的最高峰出现在中后期,反映了它们之间功能上的不同.实验结果直观且相对定量地揭示了叶绿体编码蛋白质的表达与叶片生长之间的关联关系,为深入了解其功能提供了重要的线索.     

Effects of ammonium-based fertilisation on microbialprocesses involved in methane emission from soilsplanted with rice

The emission of the greenhouse gas CH₄ from ricepaddies is strongly influenced by management practicessuch as the input of ammonium-based fertilisers. Weassessed the impact of different levels (200 and 400kgN.ha^–1) of urea and (NH₄)₂HPO₄on the microbial processes involved in production andconsumption of CH₄ in rice field soil. We usedcompartmented microcosms which received fertilisertwice weekly. Potential CH₄ production rates weresubstantially higher in the rice rhizosphere than inunrooted soil, but were not affected by fertilisation.However, CH₄ emission was reduced by the additionof fertiliser and was negatively correlated with porewater NH ₄ ^plus concentration, probably as theconsequence of elevated CH₄ oxidation due tofertilisation. CH₄ oxidation as well as numbersof methanotrophs was distinctly stimulated by theaddition of fertiliser and by the presence of the riceplant. Without fertiliser addition,nitrogen-limitation of the methanotrophs will restrictthe consumption of CH₄. This may have a majorimpact on the global CH₄ budget, asnitrogen-limiting conditions will be the normalsituation in the rice rhizosphere. Elevated potentialnitrifying activities and numbers were only detectedin microcosms fertilised with urea. However, asubstantial part of the nitrification potential in therhizosphere of rice was attributed to the activity ofmethanotrophs, as was demonstrated using theinhibitors CH₃F and C₂H₂.     

Soil type links microbial colonization of rice roots to methane emission

Most of the methane (CH₄) emission from rice fields is derived from plant photosynthates, which are converted to CH₄. Rice cluster I (RC-1) archaea colonizing the rhizosphere were found to be the methanogens responsible for this process. Hence, RC-1 methanogens seem to play a crucial role in emission of the greenhouse gas CH₄. We determined the community composition and activity of methanogens colonizing the roots of eight different rice cultivars after growth on both Italian rice soil and river bank soil, which contained different communities of methanogenic archaea. The community composition was analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and cloning/sequencing of the archaeal 16S rRNA gene and the mcrA gene coding for a subunit of the methyl coenzyme M reductase. When grown on rice field soil, the methanogenic community of the different rice cultivars was always dominated by RC-1 methanogens. In contrast, roots were colonized by Methanomicrobiales when grown on river bank soil, in which RC-1 methanogens were initially not detectable. Roots colonized with Methanomicrobiales compared with RC-1 exhibited lower CH₄ production and CH₄ emission rates. The results show that the type of methanogens colonizing rice roots has a potentially important impact on the global CH₄ cycle.     

大豆不同生育期根际土壤细菌群落结构的变化

为了解大豆根际细菌群落结构多样性及根际细菌群落结构的变化,该研究以大豆苗期和成熟期的根际土壤为材料,采用Illumina高通量测序技术测定细菌16S rRNA V3+V4区序列,探究大豆不同生育期根际土壤细菌群落结构的变化。对原始数据进行拼接、过滤、去除嵌合体序列和聚类分析等数据处理,并对OTU进行分类学注释。在此基础上运用ANOVA分析物种组成变化,Alpha多样性指数研究细菌多样性变化。结果表明:细菌丰富度和多样性在不同生育期有显著变化,其中成熟期土壤中的细菌丰富度和多样性指数均明显高于苗期; 变形菌、放线菌、酸杆菌是大豆根际的优势菌门,其含量在不同生育期也有显著变化; 假诺卡氏菌属、糖丝菌属、鞘氨醇单胞菌属是大豆根际的优势菌属,这些菌属中的部分菌群属于根际促生菌,具有潜在的促生效应。这些结果证实大豆的生育期对根际土壤细菌群落结构有重要影响。     

Diffusion-controlled transport of methane from soil to atmosphere as mediated by rice plants

Methane emission from rice grown in flooded soil was measured in pot experiments using headspaces with different gas composition. The emission rates varied with the atmospheric composition. Based on the kinetic theory of gases the binary diffusion coefficients for methane in various gases were calculated. The ratios of the measured emissions under a certain atmosphere relative to that in air were similar to the ratios of the binary diffusion coefficients showing that plant-mediated CH₄ transport is driven by diffusion. Small deviations from the theoretical ratios of emissions support the hypothesis that mass flow of gas to the submerged parts of the rice plant may depress the upward diffusive CH₄ flux. The results in combination with data from the literature suggest that the rate limiting step in plant-mediated methane transport is diffusion of CH₄ across the root/shoot junction.