Reproductive Biology of the Coral-reef Goby, Asterropteryx Semipunctata, in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii

A population of the Hawaiian coral-reef goby, Asterropteryx semipunctata, was sampled over a 12-month period to determine basic demographics and reproductive parameters. The sexes did not differ in median length or weight, although the largest males were considerably longer and heavier than the largest females. Overall adult sex ratio was 1:1; monthly sex ratios did not differ from unity except in June, when there was a significant female bias. Minimum age at maturity (17.5–19mm SL) was estimated to be 4.5–5 months after hatching. Nearly all fish over 22mm SL were mature. Mature females were found in all months of the year, and females that showed evidence of recent or imminent spawning were collected in every month except December. Gonadal analyses indicated a peak in breeding during the summer (May–July) and minimal spawning during the winter (January–February). Between 20% and 30% of females showed evidence of having spawned within the 24-h period prior to collection; therefore, it was estimated that females spawned, on average, at least once every five days and perhaps as frequently as every three days. Mean batch fecundity was 708 eggs (± 418), and was not well predicted by standard length, body weight, or somatic condition. Relative batch fecundity (mean = 1.44 oocytes mg^–1 somatic wet weight) varied seasonally, with higher values in spring and summer (April–July) than in fall and winter (September–January). Reproductive parameters are compared and contrasted with those of other gobiid fishes to elucidate general differences between temperate and tropical species.     

Effects of herbivory, nutrient levels, and introduced algae on the distribution and abundance of the invasive macroalga Dictyosphaeria cavernosa in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii

Since the 1960s, and possibly earlier, the macroalga Dictyosphaeria cavernosa has overgrown and displaced corals on reef slopes and outer reef flats in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. This shift in reef community composition is generally attributed to nutrient enrichment resulting from sewage discharge. Following the diversion of most of the sewage effluent in 1977-1978, it was expected that D. cavernosa growth would become nutrient-limited and its abundance would consequently decline, but the alga remains abundant in much of the bay. One explanation for its persistence is that nutrients are once again high enough to support the alga's growth. An alternative explanation is that there has been a reduction in grazing intensity in the bay. In this study we resurveyed the distribution and abundance of D. cavernosa at 120 reef slope sites originally surveyed in 1969. We conducted additional surveys to estimate the biomass of herbivores and the areal coverage of D. cavernosa and other macroalgae on reef slopes and flats. Field experiments were used to determine spatial and temporal patterns of grazing intensity on and growth rates of D. cavernosa and the introduced macroalga Acanthophora spicifera. Laboratory experiments were used to examine preferences among herbivores for some of the most abundant macroalgae on Kaneohe Bay reefs. Twenty years after sewage diversion, D. cavernosa cover on reef slopes has decreased substantially in southern Kaneohe Bay, the site of most of the historical sewage discharge. D. cavernosa cover has changed less in other regions, remaining high in the central bay and low in the north bay. D. cavernosa thalli protected by grazer exclusion cages sustained positive growth rates on reef slopes and flats throughout the bay. Reduced nutrient concentrations may have caused a reduction in D. cavernosa growth rates, and a consequent reduction in D. cavernosa abundance in the south bay shortly after sewage diversion. Measurements of grazing intensity and surveys of herbivorous fish abundance suggest that the continued abundance of D. cavernosa is the result of a reduction in grazing intensity. Reduced grazing intensity on D. cavernosa may in turn be the result of a historical reduction in herbivore biomass or the establishment of several introduced macroalgae on reef flats. The introduced species are preferred by herbivorous fishes over D. cavernosa, as indicated by preference tests. The hypothesis that reduced grazing pressure on D. cavernosa is related to the establishment of introduced species is supported by the observation that D. cavernosa cover is highest on reef slopes where the cover of preferred introduced macroalgae on the adjacent outer reef flat is also high. Conversely, D. cavernosa cover is low or zero on reef slopes where the cover of introduced macroalgae on the adjacent reef flat is low or zero     

Influence of sewage discharge on nitrogen fixation and nitrogen flux from coral reefs in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii.

Nitrogen fixation was investigated in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, a subtropical eutrophic estuary, by using the acetylene reduction technique on algal samples. No active, planktonic, N2-fixing blue-green algae or bacteria were observed. However, Calothrix and Nostoc capable of fixing N2 were cultured from navigational buoys and dead coral heads. Nitrogen fixation associated with these structures was greater in the middle sector than in the south and north sectors of the estuary. Experiments demonstrated that the fixation was photosynthetically dependent. Examination of the data showed that there was no significant correlation between rates of nitrogen fixation and concentration of combined nitrogen compounds in the Bay water. Fixation was significantly correlated to the inorganic N/P (atomic) ratio in the south and middle sectors but not in the north sector. The nutrient data indicate there was a flux of combined nitrogen, but not phosphate, from the reef flats.     

Influence of sewage discharge on nitrogen fixation and nitrogen flux from coral reefs in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii.

Nitrogen fixation was investigated in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, a subtropical eutrophic estuary, by using the acetylene reduction technique on algal samples. No active, planktonic, N2-fixing blue-green algae or bacteria were observed. However, Calothrix and Nostoc capable of fixing N2 were cultured from navigational buoys and dead coral heads. Nitrogen fixation associated with these structures was greater in the middle sector than in the south and north sectors of the estuary. Experiments demonstrated that the fixation was photosynthetically dependent. Examination of the data showed that there was no significant correlation between rates of nitrogen fixation and concentration of combined nitrogen compounds in the Bay water. Fixation was significantly correlated to the inorganic N/P (atomic) ratio in the south and middle sectors but not in the north sector. The nutrient data indicate there was a flux of combined nitrogen, but not phosphate, from the reef flats.     

Patterns and causes of temporal variability in the physiological condition of the phytoplankton community in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii

Primary production rates, the percentage of photosyntheticallyfixed carbon allocated to protein, production/biomass (P/B)ratios and water quality parameters were measured on a weeklybasis over 1 year in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. The temporal sequenceof virtually all parameters measured, with the exception ofphosphate and ammonium concentrations, was significantly non-random(P 0.05). Some of the parameters showed clear evidence of seasonality(e.g. nitrate and silicate concentrations, temperature, irradiance).However, the non-random nature of the temporal sequence in manyparameters was typically due to 3- to 4-week periods duringwhich the phytoplankton community composition and physiologicalstate showed little variation. Both the percentage of fixedcarbon allocated to protein and P/B ratios were negatively correlatedwith the phytoplanktoa size during all seasons, a result whichsuggests that the smaller cells were growing more rapidly thanlarger cells in both a relative and an absolute sense. Ammoniumconcentrations were consistently higher than nitrate concentrations,but of the nutrients measured only nitrate concentration wasconsistently correlated with per cent protein and P/B ratios.It is suggested the influx of nitrate to the system influencesthe supply of all forms of nitrogen via recycling within thefood web, and the flux of nitrate is positively correlated withnitrate concentration. ¹Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology Contribution no. 737     

Seasonal Changes in Reproductive Activity in the Potter's angelfish (Centropyge potteri) in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii

Potter's angelfish, Centropyge potteri, is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with the alpha female of a harem becoming male under the proper social conditions. Gonads and plasma samples were collected from females every 6–9 days for 1 year, and then for every 4–6 weeks for another year. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) of females remained below 1% from July until December. Starting from the first week of December, large spikes occurred in the GSI, fluctuating from 1.4% to 4.1% and falling below 1% in June. Plasma concentrations of estradiol-17 were relatively low (1–2ngml^–1) between July and November. Beginning in the third week of November, large spikes of plasma estradiol-17 were observed, fluctuating from 0.5 to 5ngml^–1. This pattern continued until the third week of May, and then estradiol-17 levels remained low for the rest of the year. Estradiol-17 levels showed a highly significant correlation with GSI. Estradiol-17 levels during late vitellogenesis and final maturation were significantly greater than those of the other stages. These results suggest that the spawning season of the Potter's angelfish is from December to June. One of the causes of the large fluctuations in GSI and plasma estradiol-17 within the spawning season appears to be due to the fact that Potter's angelfish is an asynchronous daily spawner.     

Spatial variation in the effects of grazing on epilithic algal turfs on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Of all benthic components on tropical reefs, algal turfs are the most widespread and the main source of primary productivity. We compared the importance of grazing by herbivores on algal turfs on two zones with marked differences in terms of benthic composition, herbivore biomass and grazing pressure, the inner flat and crest, of an inshore reef on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. A combination of herbivore exclusion cages and transplants of coral rubble covered by algal turfs between reef zones was used to examine changes in algal turfs over a 4-day experimental period. In situ crest turfs had lower algal height, sediment loads and particulate content than reef flat turfs. Caged samples on the crest exhibited an increase in all three variables. In contrast, in situ and caged treatments on the flat presented algal turfs with similar values for the three analysed variables, with high algal height and heavy particulate and sediment loads. In the absence of cages, reef flat turfs transplanted to the crest had decreased algal height, total particulate material and particulate inorganic content, while the opposite was found in crest turf samples transplanted to the flat. Our results highlight the dynamic nature of algal turfs and the clear differences in the relative importance of herbivory in shaping turf length and sediment load between the reef crest and inner flat.     

藻类爆发对太湖梅梁湾水体中NPK含量的影响

1998～2000年对太湖梅梁湾的实测结果表明,在一定范围内叶绿素a的含量与温度呈现明显的正相关;NH4^+-N和总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)含量在每年的八九月份最低,总含量与叶绿素a呈正相关。随着叶绿素a含量上升,N、P含量呈现下降趋势;K的含量与N、P相似．排污口的0号点和6号点的N、P含量相对于湖中心的8号样点来说极高,而且P已不是限制性营养元素,在其它水域,P依然是限制性营养元素,表明微囊藻(Microcystis spp.)只在TN含量为1～4mg·L^-1、TP在0．1～0．3mg·L^-1之间时爆发形成水华．     

Coliphage and indigenous phage in Mamala Bay, Oahu, Hawaii.

Public concern over the discharge of primarily treated sewage by two offshore outfalls in Mamala Bay, Oahu, prompted a multidisciplinary study to determine the impact of such activities on the water quality in the bay and at adjacent recreational beaches. As part of this study, we determined the abundance of coliphage as an indicator of fecal pollution along with total viral direct counts and phages infective for Vibrio parahaemoltyicus 16 at stations in Mamala Bay in four quarterly samplings over 13 months. Coliphage (< 1 to 1.2 x 10(3)/liter) were found during each quarterly sampling along an offshore transect to the Sand Island waste treatment facility outfall. The nonpoint coastal stations (Pearl Harbor, Ala Wai Canal, and Ke'ehi Lagoon) had high levels of coliphage during the storm event sampling in February 1994 but much lower levels or none when sampled during dry weather. Coliphage were absent at all samplings at Waikiki Beach and at the control station off Diamond Head. Viral direct counts in eutrophic coastal stations (Pearl Harbor, Ke'ehi Lagoon, Ala Moana Beach, and Ala Wai canal) averaged 10(9)/liter, while counts at offshore stations ranged from 9 x 10(7) to 1 x 10(9) viruses/liter, values similar to those for other marine environments. Vibriophage were found mainly in eutrophic coastal environments (Ala Wai Canal, Pearl Harbor, and Ke'ehi Lagoon) and at the Sand Island Transect stations D1 and D2. The greatest abundance was found during the storm event (February 1994) sampling. These results suggest that the Sand Island outfall influenced the water quality of the immediate surrounding waters but had little effect on the quality of the recreational beaches. Nonpoint discharge sources appeared to be more important in the distribution of fecal indicators in the coastal zone.     

The role of recruitment in structuring patterns of small-scale spatial variability in intertidal and subtidal algal turfs

Recruitment is often important in structuring patterns of distribution and abundance of algal assemblages. Intertidal and subtidal turfing algal assemblages consistently vary on small spatial scales (tens of centimetres), and this variability may be due to patterns of recruitment varying on similar spatial scales. The validity of this model was evaluated by testing the hypothesis that the numbers and types of taxa recruiting to turfs would vary at small spatial scales within intertidal and within subtidal habitats. Abundances of algal recruits were estimated on sandstone plates that were placed at a number of spatial scales within intertidal and within subtidal habitats (centimetres to tens of metres). Significant differences in entire assemblages were found only between habitats. This was explained by abundances of individual taxa, which generally varied between intertidal and subtidal habitats or between sites within habitats. Only small proportions of the overall spatial variation (dissimilarity) could be explained at the scale of replicate recruitment plates that were centimetres apart. Results indicate that while recruitment may contribute to differences between intertidal and subtidal habitats, it cannot explain the small-scale spatial variability in established turfing algal assemblages within these habitats. There was some evidence to suggest that recruitment may contribute to variability in established turfing algal assemblages but only over longer time scales than examined here.     

Acoustic and biological trends on coral reefs off Maui,Hawaii

Coral Reefs - Coral reefs are characterized by high biodiversity, and evidence suggests that reef soundscapes reflect local species assemblages. To investigate how sounds produced on a given reef...     

Grazer biomass correlates more strongly with production than with biomass of algal turfs on a coral reef

The biomass of large herbivorous grazing fish on the shallow reef crest of Myrmidon Reef, Great Barrier Reef, is 7.0 times that on the reef slope (15 m depth), and 2.3 times that on the reef flat. Biomass of algal turfs on the crest was only 1.4 and 1.0 times that on the slope and flat, respectively. In contrast, rate of production of algal turfs on the crest was 5.3 and 2.8 times that on the slope and flat, respectively. A multiple correlation between large grazer biomass, algal turf biomass, and algal turf production across the three zones showed that only rate of algal production correlated significantly with large grazer biomass (algal production p=0.007, algal biomass p=0.418). This result suggests that large grazers may aggregate in zones of highest algal turf production. The mechanisms by which fish respond to habitat-specific differences in food production remain unclear.     

Age and composition of carbonate shoreface sediments, Kailua Bay, Oahu, Hawaii

The origin, age, and dynamics of carbonate sediments in Kailua Bay on Oahu, Hawaii, are described. The shoreface (from shoreline to 4 km offshore) consists of a broad (5 km²) fringing coral reef ecosystem bisected by a sinuous, shore-normal, sand-filled paleostream channel 200–300 m wide. The median grain diameter of surface sands is finest on the beach face (<0.3 mm) and increases offshore along the channel axis. Kailua sands are >90% biogenic carbonate, dominated by skeletal fragments of coralline algae (e.g. Porolithon, up to 50%) followed by the calcareous green alga Halimeda (up to 32%), coral fragments (1–24%), mollusc fragments (6–21%), and benthic foraminifera (1–10%). Sand composition and age across the shoreface are correlated to carbonate production. Corals and coralline algae, principal builders of the reef framework, are younger and more abundant in sands along the channel axis and in offshore reefal areas, while Halimeda, molluscs, and foraminifera are younger and more dominant in nearshore waters shoreward of the main region of framework building. Shoreface sediments are relatively old. Of 20 calibrated radiocarbon dates on skeletal constituents of sand, only three are younger than 500 years b.p.; six are 500–1000 years b.p.; six are 1000–2000 years b.p.; and five are 2000–5000 years b.p. Dated fine sands are older than medium to coarse sands and hence may constitute a reservoir of fossil carbonate that is distributed over the entire shoreface. Dominance of fossiliferous sand indicates long storage times for carbonate grains, which tend to decrease in size with age, such that the entire period of relative sea-level inundation (∼5000 years) is represented in the sediment. Despite an apparently healthy modern coral ecosystem, the surficial sand pool of Kailua Bay is dominated by sand reflecting an antecedent system, possibly one that existed under a +1–2 m sea-level high stand during the mid- to late Holocene. Accepted: 20 December 1999     

Effects of live coral,epilithic algal communities and substrate type on algal recruitment

The recruitment of algae is a critical process during algal colonization and invasions, including coral-to-algal phase shifts. Although algae are widely assumed to colonize and kill corals, there is very little known about the recruitment dynamics of coral reef algae. This study tested the ability of two dominant macroalgae (Fucales including Sargassum spp. and Lobophora variegata) to settle and grow on healthy coral tissue. The study also explored the effects of interactions with prior occupants, and of abiotic substrate properties (texture, and ceramic and carbonate material). The results indicate that healthy corals were able to prevent attachment or survival of recruits of these macroalgae. This is a significant point, since it suggests that the replacement of corals by algae may often require prior stress or death in the coral tissue. Pre-conditioning of plates at different sites had some effects, but these were relatively minor, whereas there was considerable variation within sites. Some of this variation appeared to be related to the amount of turf algae or crustose coralline algae on the plates. Recruitment was generally, but not always, higher on plates with rougher texture. Overall, this preliminary exploration indicates considerable potential for variability in outcomes of algal colonization, with implications for the dynamics of algal invasions. In particular, the results do not support suggestions that planktonic algal propagules can directly settle on and colonize healthy coral tissue.Communicated by Topic Editor D. Barnes     

Competition between corals and algal turfs along a gradient of terrestrial influence in the nearshore central Great Barrier Reef

Competition between benthic algae and corals is a key process in the community ecology of reefs, especially during reef degradation. However, there have been very few experimental tests for competition between corals and benthic algae, despite widespread assumptions that algae are generally superior competitors, especially in eutrophic conditions. This study tested for competition for space between the massive coral Porites lobata and algal filamentous turfs on three reefs along a cross-shelf gradient of terrestrial influence, by experimentally removing or damaging either corals or algae. The corals and algae were competing for space, but, significantly, the algae appeared to have little effect on coral growth. In contrast, corals significantly inhibited algal growth, suggesting Porites was the competitive superior. Importantly, coral growth was generally positive, even on the reef with the greatest terrestrial influence. Competitive outcomes did not support the argument that algae are more successful competitors in more eutrophic conditions.     

Multi-spectral mapping of reef bathymetry and coral cover; Kailua Bay,Hawaii

We used high-resolution, airborne, digital, multi-spectral imagery to map bathymetry and the percent of living coral in the nearshore marine environment of Kailua Bay, Oahu, Hawai'i. Three spectral bands, with centers at 488, 551, and 577 nm (each with a full-width half maximum of 10 nm), were selected for good water transmission and good coral/sand/algae discrimination. However, the third band (577 nm) was not used in the depth and bottom-type solutions. The spatial resolution of 1 m per pixel was selected to balance resolution with the size of the total data set. A radiative transfer model accounting for the optical effects of the atmosphere, ocean surface, water, and reflection off the ocean bottom substrates was applied to the multi-spectral images, normalizing multiple images to one another for a mosaic that spans the bay. Atmospheric parameters in the radiative transfer model were estimated from published values measured for similar environments. Water-attenuation coefficients for the model were determined from the observed spectral data values over the sand bottom type in the bay. Relative depth and bottom-type coefficients were derived by a method most simply described as the "differencing" of two spectral bands. Accuracy exceeding 85% in predicted depth was achieved to a depth of 25 m. Depth prediction errors were assessed with comparison to hydrographic survey data. Classification of bottom-type coefficients into seven "percent living coral" categories results in 77% overall accuracy tested by diver-obtained line-intercept transect data (ground truth). Bottom-type coefficients derived by the model were corrected for atmospheric and ocean conditions on the date of collection, so spatial changes in bathymetry and "percent living coral" through time can be analyzed and related to environmental factors. The radiative transfer model and the "differencing" method used to solve for depth and "percent living coral" can be applied to any airborne, passive remote sensing digital data with appropriate spectral bands.     

Effects of selective oxidation of chitosan on physical and biological properties

Chitosan was selectively oxidized at C-6 primary alcohol groups by TEMPO in the presence of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and sodium bromide (NaBr), and also non-specifically oxidized only by NaOCl. Sequentially oxidized chitosan samples from 25 to 100% were produced by 25% increment, from both oxidation processes. By introducing carbonyl groups in chitosan structure with either oxidizing process, the water solubility was shown to be enhancing from all the oxidized sample groups. At the 25% of non-specific oxidation, 0.56% of solubility was detected but there was no proportional increase in solubility as the oxidation level increased. Moreover, the decreases in solubility were observed at 50%-oxidized (0.43%) and 100%-oxidized (0.45%) chitosan samples. During the specific oxidation process, 25%-oxidized 6-oxychitosan had the highest solubility, and the solubility decreased substantially from 0.72 to 0.15% as the degree of oxidation increased from 25 to 100%. Possibly, excessive incorporation of negative charges on chitosan resulted in the aggregation among 6-oxychitosan molecules by charge-charge interactions. The strongest cholic acid-retardation index (CRI, %) of highly soluble 25%-oxidized 6-oxychitosan was consistently observed until 24h of dialysis, which means the CRI is closely related to the water solubility of 6-oxychitosan. Therefore, the solubility improvement should be considered for enhancing the biological activity such as bile acid-binding capacity. Also, it was suggested that negative charge increase in chitosan structure above a certain level led to adverse effect on the binding capacity.     

Effects of timber harvest on river food webs: physical, chemical and biological responses

I compared physical, chemical and biological characteristics of nine rivers running through three timber harvest regimes to investigate the effects of land use on river ecosystems, to determine whether these corresponded to changes linked with downstream location, and to compare the response of different types of indicator variables. Physical variables changed with downstream location, but varied little with timber harvest. Most chemical variables increased strongly with timber harvest, but not with downstream location. Most biological variables did not vary systematically with either timber harvst or downstream location. Dissolved organic carbon did not vary with timber harvest or downstream location, but correlated positively with salmonid abundance. Nutrient manipulations revealed no general pattern of nutrient limitation with timber harvest or downstream location. The results suggest that chemical variables most reliably indicate timber harvest impact in these systems. The biological variables most relevant to human stakeholders were surprisingly insensitive to timber harvest, however, apparently because of decoupling from nutrient responses and unexpectedly weak responses by physical variables.     

Characterization of Marine Temperate Phage-Host Systems Isolated from Mamala Bay, Oahu, Hawaii

To understand the ecological and genetic role of viruses in the marine environment, it is critical to know the infectivity of viruses and the types of interactions that occur between marine viruses and their hosts. We isolated four marine phages from turbid plaques by using four indigenous bacterial hosts obtained from concentrated water samples from Mamala Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. Two of the rod-shaped bacterial hosts were identified as Sphingomonas paucimobilis and Flavobacterium sp. All of the phage isolates were tailed phages and contained double-stranded DNA. Two of the phage isolates had morphologies typical of the family Siphoviridae, while the other two belonged to the families Myoviridae and Podoviridae. The head diameters of these viruses ranged from 47 to 70.7 nm, and the tail lengths ranged from 12 to 146 nm. The burst sizes ranged from 7.8 to 240 phage/bacterial cell, and the genome sizes, as determined by restriction digestion, ranged from 36 to 112 kb. The members of the Siphoviridae, T-HSIC, and T-D0, and the member of the Myoviridae, T-D1B, were found to form lysogenic associations with their bacterial hosts, which were isolated from the same water samples. Hybridization of phage T-HSIC probe with lysogenic host genomic DNA was observed in dot blot hybridization experiments, indicating that prophage T-HSIC was integrated within the host genome. These phage-host systems are available for use in studies of marine lysogeny and transduction.