Digital technology adoption in livestock production with a special focus on ruminant farming

Digitalisation is an integral part of modern agriculture. Several digital technologies are available for different animal species and form the basis for precision livestock farming. However, there is a lack of clarity as to which digital technologies are currently used in agricultural practice. Thus, this work aims to present for the first time the status quo in Swiss livestock farming as an example of a highly developed, small-scale and diverse structured agriculture. In this context, the article focuses on the adoption of electronic sensors and measuring devices, electronic controls and electronic data-processing options and the usage of robotics in ruminant farming, namely, for dairy cattle, dairy goats, suckler cows, beef cattle and meat-sheep. Furthermore, the use of electronic ear tags for pigs and the smartphone usage for barn monitoring on poultry farms was assessed. To better understand the adoption process, farm and farmer’s characteristics associated with the adoption of (1) implemented and (2) new digital technologies in ruminant farming were assessed using regression analyses, which is classified at a 10% adoption hurdle. The results showed clear differences in the adoption rates between different agricultural enterprises, with both types of digital technologies tending to be used the most in dairy farming. Easy-to-use sensors and measuring devices such as those integrated in the milking parlour were more widespread than data processing technologies such as those used for disease detection. The husbandry system further determined the use of digital technologies, with the result that farmers with tie stall barns were less likely to use digital technologies than farmers with loose housing systems. Additional studies of farmers’ determinants and prospects of implementation can help identify barriers in the adoption of digital technologies.     

Development of a vaccine marker technology: display of B cell epitopes on the surface of recombinant polyomavirus-like pentamers and capsoids induces peptide-specific antibodies in piglets after vaccination

Highly immunogenic capsomers (pentamers) and virus-like particles (VLPs) were generated through insertion of foreign B cell epitopes into the surface-exposed loops of the VP1 protein of murine polyomavirus and via heterologous expression of the recombinant fusion proteins in E. coli. Usually, complex proteins like the keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) act as standard carrier devices for the display of such immunogenic peptides after chemical linkage. Here, a comparative analysis revealed that antibody responses raised against the carrier entities, KLH or VP1 pentamers, did not significantly differ up to 18 weeks, demonstrating the highly immunogenic nature of VP1-based particulate structures. The carrier-specific antibody response was reproducibly detected in the meat juice after processing. More importantly, chimeric VP1 pentamers and VLPs carrying peptides of 12 and 14 amino acids in length, inserted into the BC2 loop, induced a strong and long-lasting humoral immune response against VP1 and the inserted foreign epitope. Remarkably, the epitope-specific antibody response was only moderately decreased when VP1 pentamers were used instead of VLPs. In conclusion, we identified polyomavirus VP1-based structures displaying surface-exposed immunodominant B cell epitopes as being an efficient carrier system for the induction of potent peptide-specific antibodies. The application of this approach in vaccine marker technology in livestock holding and the meat production chain is discussed.     

吉林珲春自然保护区东北虎捕食家畜研究

东北虎在中国已经极度濒危,随着位于中俄朝三国边境地区的吉林珲春自然保护区在2001 年底的建成,对虎的保护初见成效。然而保护区内虎频繁捕食家畜,引发了当地居民的不满。为了减缓人虎冲突,寻找东北虎捕食家畜的有关规律,作者开展了东北虎捕食家畜的相关研究。从2001 年12 月至2007 年底,共计有126 起,204 头家养动物被虎袭击,且呈现逐年上升的趋势。家畜被袭击主要发生在每年的4 ～ 9 月,没有发现明显的对家畜种的偏好。利用GIS 和回归分析表明:1)虎通常不袭击离开村庄小于1 km 的家畜;2)人为干扰对家畜的被食用率和虎移动家畜尸体的行为都有显著影响;3)共计有约16 079 kg 的家养动物肉被虎食用,造成损失76084 美元;4)对虎袭击地点生态变量的分析表明,东向和南向有更多的家畜被袭击;5)此外,虎多在较低的海拔和坡度、较高的郁闭度,靠近村庄和河流,远离道路等区域捕食家畜。清除套子和防止下套以增加有蹄类的密度对于减少虎捕食家畜非常重要。此外,减少虎袭击地点的人为干扰和改善对家畜的看护也非常关键。     

Facilitative glucose transporters in livestock species

The study of facilitative glucose transporters (GLUT) requires carefully done immunological experiments and sensitive molecular biology approaches to identify the various mechanisms which control GLUT expression at the RNA and protein levels. The cloning of species-specific GLUT cDNAs showed that GLUT4 and GLUT1 diverge less among species than other GLUT isoforms. The key role of GLUT in glucose homeostasis has been demonstrated in livestock species. In vitro studies have suggested specific roles of GLUT1 and GLUT3 in avian cells. In vivo studies have demonstrated a regulation of GLUTs (especially of GLUT4) by nutritional and hormonal factors in pigs and cattle, in lactating cows and goats and throughout the foetal life in the placenta and tissues of lambs and calves. All these results suggest that any changes in GLUT expression and activity (such as GLUT4 in muscles) could modify nutrient partitioning and tissue metabolism, and hence, the qualities of animal products (milk, meat).     

The transgenic expression of human follistatin-344 increases skeletal muscle mass in pigs

Follistatin (FST), which was first found in the follicles of cattle and pigs, has been shown to be an essential regulator for muscle development. Mice that were genetically engineered to overexpress Fst specifically in muscle had at least twice the amount of skeletal muscle mass as controls; these findings are similar to earlier results obtained in myostatin-knockout mice. However, the role of follistatin in skeletal muscle development has yet to be clarified in livestock. Here, we describe transgenic Duroc pigs that exogenously express Fst specifically in muscle tissue. The transgenic pigs exhibited an increased proportion of skeletal muscle and a reduced proportion of body fat that were similar to those reported in myostatin-null cattle. The lean percentage of lean meat was significantly higher in the F1 generation of TG pigs (72.95 ± 1.0 %) than in WT pigs (69.18 ± 0.97 %) (N = 16, P < 0.05). Myofiber hypertrophy was also observed in the longissimus dorsi of transgenic pigs, possibly contributing to the increased skeletal muscle mass. Western blot analysis showed a significantly reduced level of Smad2 phosphorylation and an increased level of Akt^S473 phosphorylation in the skeletal muscle tissue of the transgenic pigs. Moreover, no cardiac muscle hypertrophy or reproductive abnormality was observed. These findings indicate that muscle-specific Fst overexpression in pigs enhances skeletal muscle growth, at least partly due to myofiber hypertrophy and providing a promising approach to increase muscle mass in pigs and other livestock.     

Review: Precision Livestock Farming technologies in pasture-based livestock systems

Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) encompasses the combined application of single technologies or multiple tools in integrated systems for real-time and individual monitoring of livestock. In grazing systems, some PLF applications could substantially improve farmers’ control of livestock by overcoming issues related to pasture utilisation and management, and animal monitoring and control. A focused literature review was carried out to identify technologies already applied or at an advanced stage of development for livestock management in pastures, specifically cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry. Applications of PLF in pasture-based systems were examined for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. The earliest technology applied to livestock was the radio frequency identification tag, allowing the identification of individuals, but also for retrieving important information such as maternal pedigree. Walk-over-weigh platforms were used to record individual and flock weights. Coupled with automatic drafting systems, they were tested to divide the animals according to their needs. Few studies have dealt with remote body temperature assessment, although the use of thermography is spreading to monitor both intensively reared and wild animals. Global positioning system and accelerometers are among the most applied technologies, with several solutions available on the market. These tools are used for several purposes, such as animal location, theft prevention, assessment of activity budget, behaviour, and feed intake of grazing animals, as well as for reproduction monitoring (i.e., oestrus, calving, or lambing). Remote sensing by satellite images or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) seems promising for biomass assessment and herd management based on pasture availability, and some attempts to use UAVs to monitor, track, or even muster animals have been reported recently. Virtual fencing is among the upcoming technologies aimed at grazing management. This system allows the management of animals at pasture without physical fences but relies on associative learning between audio cues and an electric shock delivered if the animal does not change direction after the acoustic warning. Regardless of the different technologies applied, some common constraints have been reported on the application of PLF in grazing systems, especially when compared with indoor or confined livestock systems. Battery lifespan, transmission range, service coverage, storage capacity, and economic affordability were the main factors. However, even if the awareness of the existence and the potential of these upcoming tools are still limited, farmers’ and researchers’ demands are increasing, and positive outcomes in terms of rangeland conservation, animal welfare, and labour optimisation are expected from the spread of PLF in grazing systems.     

河南新郑望京楼遗址出土的动物骨骼及其反映的家养动物的差异化

聚落考古研究表明,二里头文化时期（1750~1530 BC）中原腹地出现了都邑和大、中、小型四级聚落系统,东亚地区由此进入了早期广域王权国家时代。二里头文化时期的生业经济研究对于理解中华文明形成与早期发展过程中的关键时期的社会变革与文化演进的骤然提速具有重要意义。家养动物及其副产品的开发和利用、管理和分配是生业经济研究和社会复杂化发展的重要内容。在以往研究中,尽管学界已对二里头文化时期的核心都邑二里头遗址和若干中小型聚落遗址开展了多项动物考古学研究,但是针对大型聚落的系统分析较少。鉴于此,本文以河南省新郑市望京楼遗址发掘出土的动物骨骼为研究对象,通过种属鉴定、数量统计、测量数据分析、死亡年龄推算等方法,尝试探讨居于大型聚落的先民对动物资源的消费和利用。结果显示,该遗址的家养动物有猪、黄牛、绵羊、山羊和狗,家养动物数量占多数。遗址的猪多数为未成年个体,说明肉食消费是遗址先民养猪的主要目的;绵羊多数为成年个体,说明获取羊毛是遗址先民养羊的主要目的。通过与二里头、南洼、煤山和皂角树等其他等级聚落遗址的比较可知,早期国家的都邑和大中型聚落的家养动物的种类更丰富,绵羊的数量比例随聚落等级的降低而减少,绵羊的身体尺寸随聚落等级的降低而变小,以获取羊毛为主要目的养羊业更容易在高等级聚落中出现。这一研究揭示了早期国家大型聚落和国家内部不同等级聚落开发利用动物资源的特点和差异,为从动物考古的角度探讨早期社会复杂化提供了可能性。     

Leptin in farm animals: where are we and where can we go?

Fat affects meat quality, value and production efficiency as well as providing energy reserves for pregnancy and lactation in farm livestock. Leptin, the adipocyte product of the obese (ob) gene, was quickly seen as a predictor of body fat content in animals approaching slaughter and an aid to assessing reproductive readiness in females. Its participation in inflammation and immune responses that help animals survive infection and trauma has clear additional relevance to meat and milk production. Furthermore, almost a decade of discoveries of nucleotide polymorphisms in the leptin and leptin receptor genes has suggested useful applications relating to feed intake regulation, the efficiency of feed use, the composition of growth, the timing of puberty, mammogenesis and mammary gland function and fertility in cattle, pigs and poultry. The current review attempts to summarise where research has taken us in each of these aspects and speculates on where future research might lead.     

Application of transgenesis in livestock for agriculture and biomedicine

Microinjection of foreign DNA into pronuclei of a fertilized oocyte has predominantly been used for the generation of transgenic livestock. This technology works reliably, but is inefficient and results in random integration and variable expression patterns in the transgenic offspring. Nevertheless, remarkable achievements have been made with this technology. By targeting expression to the mammary gland, numerous heterologous recombinant human proteins have been produced in large amounts which could be purified from milk of transgenic goats, sheep, cattle and rabbit. Products such as human anti-thrombin III, alpha-anti-trypsin and tissue plasminogen activator are currently in advanced clinical trials and are expected to be on the market within the next few years. Transgenic pigs that express human complement regulating proteins have been tested in their ability to serve as donors in human organ transplantation (i.e. xenotransplantation). In vitro and in vivo data convincingly show that the hyperacute rejection response can be overcome in a clinically acceptable manner by successful employing this strategy. It is anticipated that transgenic pigs will be available as donors for functional xenografts within a few years. Similarly, pigs may serve as donors for a variety of xenogenic cells and tissues. The recent developments in nuclear transfer and its merger with the growing genomic data allow a targeted and regulatable transgenic production. Systems for efficient homologous recombination in somatic cells are being developed and the adaptation of sophisticated molecular tools, already explored in mice, for transgenic livestock production is underway. The availability of these technologies are essential to maintain "genetic security" and to ensure absence of unwanted side effects.     

The production of pig preimplantation embryos in vitro: Current progress and future prospects

Human assisted reproductive technology procedures are routinely performed in clinics globally, and some of these approaches are now common in other mammals such as cattle. This is currently not the case in pigs. Given that the global population is expected to increase by over two billion people between now and 2050, the demand for meat will also undoubtedly increase. With this in mind, a more sustainable way to produce livestock; increasing productivity and implementing methods that will lead to faster genetic selection, is imperative. The establishment of routine and production scale pig embryo in vitro production could be a solution to this problem. Producers would be able to increase the overall number of offspring born, animal transportation would be more straightforward and in vitro produced embryos could be produced from the gametes of selected elite. Here we review the most recent developments in pig embryology, outline the current barriers and key challenges that exist, and outline research priorities to surmount these difficulties.     

Biosensors in the livestock industry: an automated ovulation prediction system for dairy cows

Biosensor technology can offer the livestock industry new types of monitoring and measuring devices of which the specificity, sensitivity, reproducibility, speed and ease of use exceed the current technology. Biosensors can be applied to the detection and identification of infectious diseases in livestock, contaminants and toxins in feed, therapeutic drug residues in animal husbandry and oestrus detection. Our team is applying biosensor technology to the livestock industry by developing a fully automated ovulation prediction system for dairy cows. The results from field-tests show that the progesterone biosensor can characterize the ovulation cycles of cows and detect pregnancy.     

Do pastoralist cattle fear African lions?

Fear of predators fundamentally shapes the ecology of prey species and drives both inter- and intra-specific interactions. Extensive research has examined the consequences of predation risk from large carnivores on the behavior of wild ungulate prey species. However, many large carnivores not only hunt wild prey but also depredate domestic livestock, especially in pastoralist systems where livestock share land and resources with large carnivores. Northern Tanzania is a hotspot for human–carnivore conflict driven by livestock depredation and interactions are particularly severe between African lions Panthera leo and pastoralist cattle Bos taurus. In this ecosystem, we explored the degree to which pastoralist cattle exhibited anti-predator behaviors during their daily grazing routines. Using focal animal sampling, we compared two typical anti-predator behaviors, vigilance and grouping, among cattle in village rangelands with high and low background depredation rates. We found that cattle in high risk village rangelands formed 21.2% larger groups than cattle in low risk village rangelands. Interestingly, cattle in low risk village rangelands spent 68.4% more time vigilant than cattle in high risk village rangelands. These patterns were influenced significantly by the time of day: as sunset approached, cattle in low risk village rangelands spent more time vigilant and cattle in high risk village rangelands formed larger groups. These results suggest that pastoralist cattle exhibit anti-predator strategies that vary both spatially and temporally, and that such strategies might help livestock optimally tradeoff the costs and benefits of anti-predator behavior across timescales (i.e. the risk allocation hypothesis). We discuss the implications of our results for husbandry techniques that might reduce behavioral costs associated with cattle anti-predator behaviors and help increase tolerance for lions and other large carnivores. These improvements are critical to human–carnivore coexistence given the prevalence of pastoralism globally and the rising potential for conflict with large carnivores such as lions.     

甘南牧区草畜平衡优化方案与管理决策

利用Matlab 7.9软件的多目标规划方法,以甘南牧区2008年及以前的草地畜牧业动态监测资料和社会经济发展调查统计数据为基础,以维持草畜平衡、优化畜群结构和保护草地生态环境为总目标,综合考虑牧区畜群结构优化、牧业生产目标、草畜动态平衡、区域社会经济收益状况和生态环境保护5个方面的约束条件,研究了规划期(2009-2011年)甘南牧区草地畜牧业发展的优化方案及管理对策,对比分析了减畜和增畜2种优化方案在畜群结构、牲畜总增率、净增率、商品率、出栏率、农牧民纯收益等方面的数量变化特征,提出甘南牧区草畜平衡优化方案及管理决策。研究结果表明,减畜优化方案是实现上述目标的根本途径。具体措施包括:1)适度调整牲畜数量,改良品种,优化畜群结构;2)调整农作物播种面积及结构,增加人工草地种植面积,提高补饲水平;3)稳定天然林草地面积,维护牧区生态环境; 4)增强畜牧业生产效益,提高出栏率;5)严格控制人口数量,加强国家政策调控机制。     

青藏高原高寒地区生态草牧业可持续发展:原理、技术与实践

青藏高原在保障国家生态安全、发展高寒生态草牧业和改善当地民生等方面具有重要战略意义。实现高寒地区生态草牧业可持续发展，对推动青藏高原生态保护和区域高质量发展具有重要推动作用。由于高寒草地承载力低、草畜供需时空失衡和畜牧业经营方式粗放等原因，导致草地畜牧业生产效率低，牧民经营效益差，高寒草地退化严重。为了协调推动高原生态保护、国家公园建设和区域民生改善，传统草地畜牧业亟待转型升级。近年来在国家和地方科技项目支持下，针对高寒草地畜牧业系统效率低、资源消耗大和经营效益差的瓶颈，我们在位于青藏高原东缘农牧交错区的青海省贵南县系统开展了生态草牧业关键技术研发、应用和示范，集成了以“高寒草地适度利用—优质高产人工草地建植—优良牧草青贮—系列草产品加工—饲草料精准配置—家畜营养均衡饲养—高原特色畜产品精深加工—一二三产业融合—区域功能耦合”等为一体的高寒地区生态草牧业提质增效技术体系，积极推动了传统草地畜牧业向生态草牧业发展转变，促进了高寒地区生态—生产—生活协调发展。上述工作将为青藏高原生态保护、草牧业可持续发展和高寒地区牧民持续增收提供重要科技支撑，同时对我国西部典型生态脆弱区适应性管理，黄河上游生态保护和高质量发展具有一定的启示作用。     

Resource use efficiency in urban and peri-urban sheep, goat and cattle enterprises

Urban livestock husbandry receives growing attention given the increasing urban demand for livestock products. At the same time, little is known about the resource use efficiency in urban livestock enterprises and eventual negative externalities. In livestock production, feeds are an important resource whose nutrients are transformed into products (meat and milk) to generate financial return to the producer. The lack of knowledge on nutrient supply through feed might lead to oversupply with severe environmental impacts. In Niamey, a typical West African city and capital of the Republic of Niger, urban livestock production is constrained by feed scarcity, especially during the dry season. Here, the issue of resource use efficiency was studied in 13 representative and differently managed sheep/goat and cattle enterprises characterized by high and low feed inputs, respectively, during a period of 28 months. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) inflows into each farm through livestock feeds and outflows through manure were determined using a semi-structured questionnaire; interviews were accompanied by regular weighing of feed supplied and dung produced. Live weight gain (LWG) and efficiency of conversion of total feed dry matter offered (kg TDMO/kg LWG) were computed along with nutrient balances (NBs) per metabolic body mass (kg0.75). NBs (per kg0.75/day) in the high-input (HI) sheep/goat enterprises were +1762.4 mg N, +127.2 mg P and +1363.5 mg K and were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than those in low-input (LI) units (+69.1 mg N, -98.3 mg P and +16.5 mg K). In HI cattle enterprises, daily balances averaged +454.1 mg N, +40.1 mg P and +341.8 mg K compared to +34.4 mg N, -9.0 mg P and +68.3 mg K (P > 0.05) in LI cattle systems. All systems were characterized by poor conversion efficiencies of offered feed, which ranged from 13.5 to 46.1 kg TDMO/kg LWG in cattle and from 15.7 to 43.4 kg TDMO/kg LWG in sheep/goats. LWG in HI sheep/goats was 53 g/day in the rainy season, 86 g/day in the hot dry season and 104 g/day in the cool dry season, while HI cattle lost 79 g/day in the hot dry season and gained 121 g/day and 92 g/day in the cool dry and rainy seasons, respectively. The data indicate that there is nutrient wasting and scope for improvement of feeding strategies in Niamey's livestock enterprises, which might also decrease nutrient losses to the urban environment.     

Effects of the monoclonal antibody against porcine 40 kDa adipocyte-specific plasma membrane protein on adipocytes and carcass composition

The effects of the mouse monoclonal antibody against 40 kDa adipocyte-specific plasma membrane protein on porcine adipocytes and carcass composition were investigated in vitro and in vivo. Results revealed that the in vitro complement-mediated cytotoxicity of this monoclonal antibody can lead to adipocyte lysis, remarkable reduction of adipocyte lipid accumulation （P〈0.01）, and significant decrease of well-differentiated fat cells （P〈0.01）. Treatment of adipocytes with this antibody alone in vitro did not induce cell lysis, but could lead to noticeable reduction of well-differentiated cells and lipid accumulation （P〈0.05） at the pre-adipocyte stage. In vivo, pigs injected with 0.5 mg/kg or 1.0 mg/kg of antibody showed smaller adipocyte sizes （P〈0.01） and reduced lipid accumulation of adipocytes （P〈0.01）. Our results also indicated that pigs intraperitoneally or subcutaneously immunized with 0.5 mg/kg of monoclonal antibody at 15 kg or 1.0 mg/kg antibody at 60 kg had a higher lean meat percentage （P〈0.05）, larger loin eye area （P〈0.05）, lower fat meat percentage （P〈0.05）, less backfat thickness （P〈0.05） and smaller leaf fat weight （P〈0.05） than the control pigs, but other carcass traits such as caul fat weight, heart weight, liver weight, spleen weight, kidney weight, lung weight, and dressing percentage were not significantly affected. These results suggested that this monoclonal antibody could be applied to restrain excessive fat deposition in porcine production.     

Evaluation of meat products from cloned cattle: biological and biochemical properties

Agricultural utilization of cloned livestock produced by nuclear transfer and their products for food will require public and governmental acceptance. A series of studies of properties of meat derived from cloned cattle was carried out to collect data for the safety assessment of cloned cattle products. Meat samples obtained from embryonic cloned, somatic cloned and non-cloned cattle were analyzed for chemical composition, as well as amino acids and fatty acids. Digestibility, allergenicity, and mutagenicity of meat were also examined. There were no significant differences in these properties among embryonic cloned, somatic cloned and non-cloned cattle. The analyses and tests revealed that there were no significant biological differences in meat from a non-cloned, an embryonic cloned, or a somatic cloned animal. A 14-week feeding trial in rats showed there were no abnormalities in body growth, general condition, locomotor activity, reflexes, sexual cycle, urinalysis, hematology, blood biochemistry, and histology. This study showed for the first time that the biological/biochemical properties of meat of cloned cattle are similar to those of non-cloned cattle.     

草原畜牧业温室气体排放现状、问题及展望

草原畜牧业生产系统是一个涉及环境、经济、社会多层面、且系统内部气候-土壤-草地-家畜-管理之间相互作用的复杂的社会生态系统。草原不仅为人类提供所需要的肉奶,也提供了多种生态系统服务。然而,草原畜牧业也是主要的温室气体排放源之一。减缓畜牧业温室气体排放的研究已成为当前气候变化科学研究关注的焦点。综述了国内外草原畜牧业温室气体排放研究现状,指出现有研究的不足主要集中在以下3个方面：（1）虽然生命周期评价方法广泛应用于草原畜牧业温室气体排放研究,但是存在诸多问题,导致目前的研究框架体系尚不完善,特别体现在以下几方面：是否考虑外部输入、是否考虑土壤有机碳、畜牧业温室气体排放强度指标的选择等;（2）缺乏单一环节减缓措施对草原畜牧业整体温室气体减排效果的研究;（3）目前对影响草原畜牧业温室气体排放强度的因素主要集中在生态系统层面的分析,忽略了社会系统的作用,无法反映社会系统与生态系统的相互反馈机制,导致机制阐释不完善。综上所述,未来仍需从以下三方面开展研究：（1）完善草原畜牧业研究框架体系及提升研究方法;（2）加强对单一环节减缓措施对草原畜牧业温室气体整体减排效果的综合评价;（3）基于社会生态系统的角度深入研究影响草原畜牧业温室气体排放强度差异的机制。一方面,这有助于深入理解草原畜牧业温室气体排放强度情况,也为低碳型草原畜牧业发展政策的制定提供思路借鉴;另一方面对于科学合理的可持续利用草场和恢复草地生态环境均具有重要意义。     

Re-defining efficiency of feed use by livestock

Livestock, particularly ruminants, can eat a wider range of biomass than humans. In the drive for greater efficiency, intensive systems of livestock production have evolved to compete with humans for high-energy crops such as cereals. Feeds consumed by livestock were analysed in terms of the quantities used and efficiency of conversion of grassland, human-edible ('edible') crops and crop by-products into milk, meat and eggs, using the United Kingdom as an example of a developed livestock industry. Some 42 million tonnes of forage dry matter were consumed from 2008 to 2009 by the UK ruminant livestock population of which 0.7 was grazed pasture and 0.3 million tonnes was conserved forage. In addition, almost 13 million tonnes of raw material concentrate feeds were used in the UK animal feed industry from 2008 to 2009 of which cereal grains comprised 5.3 and soyabean meal 1.9 million tonnes. The proportion of edible feed in typical UK concentrate formulations ranged from 0.36 for milk production to 0.75 for poultry meat production. Example systems of livestock production were used to calculate feed conversion ratios (FCR - feed input per unit of fresh product). FCR for concentrate feeds was lowest for milk at 0.27 and for the meat systems ranged from 2.3 for poultry meat to 8.8 for cereal beef. Differences in FCR between systems of meat production were smaller when efficiency was calculated on an edible input/output basis, where spring-calving/grass finishing upland suckler beef and lowland lamb production were more efficient than pig and poultry meat production. With the exception of milk and upland suckler beef, FCR for edible feed protein into edible animal protein were >1.0. Edible protein/animal protein FCR of 1.0 may be possible by replacing cereal grain and soyabean meal with cereal by-products in concentrate formulations. It is concluded that by accounting for the proportions of human-edible and inedible feeds used in typical livestock production systems, a more realistic estimate of efficiency can be made for comparisons between systems.