Laboratory studies on the longevity, instar duration, growth, reproduction and embryonic development in scapholeberis kingi sars (1903) (Cladocera: Daphnidae)

Kept in the laboratory at 28°–30° C, the cosmopolitan cladoceran, Scapholeberis kingi produces about 239 eggs during a life of 20.56 days duration. It has two pre-adult and seventeen adult instars. The duration of preadult and adult instars was compared with other tropical Cladocera. Egg production was found to be uniformly high with minor fluctuations. The various events in the life cycle and their significance have been compared with those of related species. The rate of egg production, expressed on a cumulative basis was found to be higher (a = 1.3326) than that of Simocephalus acutirostratus King, Moina micrura Kurz and Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars and lower than that of Daphnia carinata King.The general pattern of embryonic development of S. kingi shows close similarities to that of allied tropical and temperate species, though differences in duration of the embryonic period were recorded.     

Egg production, development and growth in Moina micrura Kurz (1874) (Cladocera: Moinidae)

Laboratory observations on the egg production, development and growth in the Cladoceran Moina micrura show that this species has a life span of 13 days during which it produces 6M 8 eggs. Two preadult and eleven adult instars were recorded at a temperature range of 28°–30°C. The rate of egg production calculated on a cumulative basis was found to be lower (a = 1.0368) than that of other tropical species. The embryonic stages in Moina micrura closely resembled other cladoceran species, although with a short development period of 24 h. The total life span, growth rate and the total number of eggs produced in Moina micrura have been compared with those of allied tropical, temperate and arctic daphnids. The significance of this relationship to secondary productivity in tropical ecosystems has been discussed.     

Ontogenesis of the cricket Gryllus argentinus Sauss. (Orthoptera, Gryllidae)

The development of Gryllus argentinus Sauss. was studied under stable laboratory conditions: the temperature of 26°C, the air humidity of 60%, and the photoperiod of 12h light: 12 h dark. The life cycle of Gryllus argentinus includes four stages: egg, pronymph, nymph, and adult. The duration of embryonic development is 18 days. The depth of egg bedding in the peat is 9.63 ± 0.12 mm (n =145), the clutch containing 2–4 eggs. A female can lay over 1100 viable eggs during the entire oviposition period. Nymphal development includes 9 instars and lasts 97 days. The duration of nymphal instars (days) is: I—5; II—6; III—6; IV—6; V—8; VI—10; VII—13; VIII—14; IX—29. The duration of the adult life is 51 days in males and 69 days, in females. In the imaginal ontogenesis of males and females, three periods can be distinguished: pre-reproductive, reproductive, and postreproductive. Males start to emit the aggressive signal on the 6th (5–8th) day (the pre-reproductive period). They enter the reproductive period (start to emit the calling song) on the 9th (8–13th) day. Females enter the reproductive period (become capable of responding to the calling song and of copulation) on the 9th (8–10th) day. Oviposition starts on the day after the first copulation. The reproductive period lasts about 40 (15–59) days in males and 58 (21–70) days in females. The post-reproductive period starts in females at the moment of finishing the egg laying period and in males, with disappearance of reproductive behavior. The period ends in the animal’s death.     

温度对近亲裸腹溞发育、生长和卵的生产量的影响

近亲裸腹溞(Moina affinis)的胚胎发育和总生活时间与温度呈反比。其后各龄期的生长、卵的生产量与温度的变化密切相关。30℃时,总胚胎发育时间为18—20小时,平均龄期为25.1小时,总生活时间为15.7天;20℃时,总胚胎发育时间为42—48小时,平均龄期为53.2小时,总生活时间为33.3天。在30℃时,有2个成体前龄,13个成龄;而在20℃时,有3个成体前龄,12个成龄。不论30℃或20℃,幼龄的龄期短于成龄龄期。近亲裸腹溞各个不同龄期的生长也因温度而变化。30℃时,10龄之前,以1、2龄的增长尤为迅速,而10龄以后增长速度则缓慢;在20℃时,第1—4龄,第6—7龄增长速度最快,第10龄后,增长趋于停止。30℃时,各成龄的累计产卵数为133.0个;而20℃为213.9个。30℃时卵的生产率(a值)为1.1811;高于20℃时的a值0.9643。       

The biology of Simocephalus acutirostratus King (Cladocera: Daphnidae)-laboratory studies of life span, instar duration, egg production, growth and stages in embryonic development

The life cycle of the cladoceran Simocephalus acutirostratus has been studied in the laboratory with reference to its total life span, duration of instars, egg production and growth. It has four pre-adult and eighteen adult instars and produces about 248 eggs during a mean life span of 44 days within a temperature range of 28°C-30°C. Egg production was found to be bimodal, with a sharp decline towards the end of the life cycle. The present results are compared and discussed with those of other tropical and temperate daphnids. It has been shown that while this species resembles most other daphnids (D. middendorffiana, D. pulex, D. carinata) in the growth pattern of pre-adult instars, it resembles the temperate D. pulex in having a relatively long life span, relatively high egg production and slow rate of growth. While studies on embryonic development of S. acutirostratus resemble the growth stages of the temperate Daphnia magna, there are differences in the total period of development between the two species. In the latter aspect, however, the present species closely resembles other tropical daphnids.     

短尾秀体溞的发育与生长

短尾秀体溞(Diaphanosoma brachyurum)是东湖6—9月的优势种群。作者在实验室恒温条件下,观察了它的发育与生长。这种溢的卵与胚胎发育时间随温度升高而缩短。卵与胚胎发育时间(D)与温度(T)间的迥归方程为: logD=2.0195-1.3784logT 短尾秀体溞的生长速度随龄数而变化,一般可分为3个时期:幼龄为高速生长期,成龄前期为中速生长期,后期则为缓慢生长期。在25℃时有4个幼龄,10个成龄;而在30、35℃时有3个幼龄,12或11个成龄。幼龄的脱皮频率远大于成龄。每个成龄期的平均龄期约为幼龄期的2倍以上,而同卵与胚胎发育的时间基本相等。龄期、寿命与温度呈反比。在25,30,35℃温度下,累计产卵数分别为65.63,69.09,51.77个。产卵率以25℃为最高(1.3421),30℃为其次(1.2856),35℃为最低(1.1488)。       

Life history,diagnosis, and biological aspects of Engytatus varians (Hemiptera: Miridae), a predator of Bactericera cockerelli (Hemiptera: Triozidae)

The life cycle and several life parameters of the zoophytophagous predator Engytatus varians (Distant) (Heteroptera: Miridae), including nymphal growth according to Dyar’s rule, were examined in the laboratory. The egg, nymph (five instars), and adult stages were 9.20, 17.36, and 19.02?d in length, respectively. The growth ratio for nymphs was consistent with Dyar’s rule based on the lengths of the femora of the forelegs, the tibiae and femora of the middle legs, and the antennae. Some biological characteristics of E. varians were also evaluated when the mirid was fed three different diets (B. cockerelli third instars, Sitotroga cerealella Olivier [Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae] eggs, and a mixture of both instars and eggs). The length of the nymphal stage was three days longer on a diet of only S. cerealella eggs than when the mirids were fed the third instars of B. cockerelli only or a mixture of both. The sex ratio was not affected by the type of diet. Nymphs of E. varians consumed B. cockerelli nymphs (80–85) when fed third instars only and third instars?+?S. cerealella eggs, respectively. The potential use of this predator as a biological control agent of B. cockerelli is discussed.     

The life cycle and parasitism of the European grasshopper mite Eutrombidium trigonum (Hermann 1804) (Prostigmata: Parasitengonae: Microthrombidiidae), a potential agent for biological control of grasshoppers (Saltatoria)

The European grasshopper mite Eutrombidium trigonum (Hermann) lives concealed in the soil in relatively warm and xeric biotopes. The eggs and spermatophores display a moderate drought resistence. The adults, during mating and larvae leave the soil and are to be found on the soil surface. The host range of the parasitic larva is restricted to Saltatoria. The larval growth is much greater than that of other instars of E. trigonum; however, no damage or other effects on the hosts were obvious and usually the hosts survived parasitism. The active post-larval instars of E. trigonum are predatory and feed exclusively on the eggs of Acrididae. The life cycle of E. trigonum is uni- to semi-voltine and is synchronized by an obligatory diapause of the adult instar before reproduction.Deceased.     

Larval development and foraging behavior of Erythrodiplax abjecta (Rambur) (Anisoptera: Libellulidae) in captivity

Understanding the life cycle of Neotropical odonate species is essential given our scant knowledge of this region. In this paper, we examine growth ratio between instars, development patterns, and active/passive feeding behavior of the Andean dragonfly Erythrodiplax abjecta (Rambur, 1842). Larvae were obtained from eggs laid by two females in the laboratory and were maintained at 12–34 °C in individual containers until either their emergence or their death. Larvae hatched 26–57 days after laying, and the total development time was determined as being 316 (SD ± 6.6) days, including 13 instars. Larval instars were characterized using six morphometric variables. The foraging behavior was analyzed considering the time of day and the percentage of the background covered by detritus. The growth ratios between successive instars averaged 1.9 for FW pad length, 1.6 for HW pad length and 1.2 for head width, head length, metathoracic leg length, and total length. Neither the active foraging nor the sit-and-wait foraging behavior were affected by either time of the day or the percentage of background covered by detritus. Erythrodiplax abjecta is univoltine and has a slow lifestyle associated with lentic perennial waters, where larval development and growth rates are low. We provide an equation to estimate the E. abjecta larval instars from field specimens.Given that our results were obtained from the eggs laid by only two females, further studies including a larger sample size are needed to validate their generality.     

Biology of Bactrocera (Zeugodacus) tau (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The biology of the fruit fly Bactrocera tau, an important horticultural pest, was studied under laboratory conditions at 25°C and 60–70% relative humidity on Cucurbita maxima. The duration of mating averaged 408.03 ± 235.93 min. After mating, the female fly had a preoviposition period of 11.7 ± 4.49 days. The oviposition rate was 9.9 ± 8.50 eggs and fecundity was 464.6 ± 67.98 eggs/female. Eggs were elliptical, smooth and shiny white, turning darker as hatching approached, and measured 1.30 ± 0.07 mm × 0.24 ± 0.04 mm. The chorion has polygonal microsculpturing and is species-specific with polygonal walls. The egg period lasts for 1.3 ± 0.41 days. The duration of the larval period is 1.2 ± 0.42, 1.7 ± 0.48 and 4.0 ± 0.94 days for first, second and third instars, respectively. Pupation occurs in the sand or soil and pupal periods are 7.0 ± 0.47 days. The life cycle from egg to adult was completed in 14.2 ± 1.69 days; the longevity of mated females and males was 130.33 ± 14.18 and 104.66 ± 31.21 days, respectively. At least two to three generations were observed from June 2008 to June 2009.     

Life cycle and parasitic interaction of the lizard-parasitizing mite Ophionyssus galloticolus (Acari: Gamasida: Macronyssidae), with remarks about the evolutionary consequences of parasitism in mites

Wild-caught specimens of the lacertid lizard Gallotia galloti eisentrauti from the Canary Island of Tenerife were checked for ectoparasites. The parasitic gamasid mite Ophionyssus galloticolus Fain and Bannert (2000) was very abundant on these lizards. Additionally, parasitism by larvae of two species of Trombiculidae (Prostigmata: Parasitengona) was observed. O. galloticolus was reared in the laboratory on its natural host in order to investigate its life cycle, reproductive biology, and development. The life history of O. galloticolus is documented in detail and compared to literature data of other Ophionyssus species. O. galloticolus was found to be similar to other species of the same genus with respect to the duration of development, the precopulatory association of protonymphs, and the arrhenotokous development of eggs. However, it seems to be more tolerant towards low relative humidity and longer starvation periods than other Ophionyssus species. Evolutionary transformations of the life-history pattern of this genus and other parasitic mites in comparison to its predatory precursors involve a reduction or partial suppression of ontogenetic instars in order to decrease mortality during host-seeking phases, and a compensating increase in growth capacity of the remaining feeding instars facilitated by replacement of sclerites through elastic cuticle or by growth of new cuticle unrelated to a moult (neosomy).     

Life-history studies of Lydella jalisco (Diptera: Tachinidae), a parasitoid of Eoreuma loftini (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Lydella jalisco Woodley (Diptera: Tachinidae) is a solitary endoparasitoid of the Mexican rice borer, Eoreuma loftini (Dyar) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the key pest of sugarcane in Texas. This parasitoid was re-introduced into Texas in 1998 as part of a classical biological control program. Information on the biology of L. jalisco is scarce and indispensable for its propagation in captivity and understanding of L. jalisco-E. loftini interactions. Parasitoid longevity, reproductive biology and immature development were studied under laboratory conditions. At 22 °C, honey-fed mated adults lived about two weeks whereas lifespan of unmated individuals averaged three weeks. Females of L. jalisco emerged with a complement of eggs that continued to develop during the first days following emergence. Mating was necessary for embryonic development. After copulation, eggs were fertilized and gradually transferred to an elongated ovisac where they incubated for about one week before hatching. Hatching occurred in the female's reproductive tract, an attribute of true ovoviviparous reproduction. First instar larvae were available for oviposition during the female's entire lifetime. Egg load increased with adult female size; mean lifetime potential fecundity was 400 ± 140 eggs per female. Parasitoids successfully developed on second to sixth instar host larvae. However, host size at parasitization positively influenced the size of resultant adult parasitoids as well as the duration of the larval growth period which was shorter as host size increased. Parasitoid larvae did not complete development below 15 °C, whereas parasitoid larval and pupal mortality respectively reached 14 and 75 percent when temperature exceeded 30 °C. The importance of biological and reproductive attributes of L. jalisco for biological control, as well as for rearing are discussed.     

Functional Response ofColeomegilla maculata(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to Colorado Potato Beetle Eggs (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

A comparative study of the functional response ofColeomegilla maculataDeGeer (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) fourth instars was conducted under laboratory, greenhouse, and field conditions. In the laboratory, individual larvae were placed in 9-cm petri dishes for 24 h, with 1, 3, 5, or 7 Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata[Say]) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) egg masses. Each egg mass was standardized at 15 eggs. In the greenhouse and field,C. maculatalarvae were provided with an equivalent of 0.5 to 35L. decemlineataegg masses/m²of potato leaf. Fourth instars ofC. maculataexhibited a type II functional response toL. decemlineataeggs under laboratory, greenhouse, and field conditions. Predator search efficiency was inversely related with prey density. The maximum mean attack rate (8.7 eggs) byC. maculatalarvae in the field was about half the mean attack rate in the laboratory (17.6 eggs) and greenhouse (20.1 eggs). The difference in prey density between the laboratory and field seems to have been a major contributing factor in determining the rate of predation, whereas differences in environmental conditions (e.g., temperature and possible alternate food) may explain the differences observed in the predation rate in the greenhouse and field.     

Reproductive biology of the microtype tachinid fly Zenillia dolosa (Meigen) (Diptera: Tachinidae)

Reproductive biology including mating, adult longevity, fecundity and development of the tachinid fly Zenillia dolosa was investigated for optimizing rearing procedures using Mythimna separata as a host in the laboratory. Females lay microtype eggs containing a first instar larva on food plants of the host and then the eggs must be ingested by the host for parasitization. Mating success was 58.5% with mating duration of 80.7 min. Mating was most successful when day 0–1 females were kept with day 2–4 male flies. Female body size was positively correlated with its fecundity but not with longevity. However, females that survived longer produced more eggs during their lifetime. Parasitoids successfully developed in 4th to 6th instar host larvae. Host instars at the time of parasitoid egg ingestion significantly influenced development time of the immature parasitoid, but did not affect body size of the emerging parasitoid. We suggest that pairing newly emerged females with day 2–4 males should result in higher mating success and using the last instar hosts for parasitization should minimize development time of the parasitoid for rearing.     

温度对透明溞和隆线溞一亚种发育及生长的影响

透明溞(Daphnia hyalina)和隆线溞一亚种(D. carinata ssp.)的发育、生长与温度的关系极为密切。胚胎发育时间随温度升高而缩短。低温培养的个体普遍大于高温。龄期、寿命也随温度升高而变短。在15—30℃温度范围内,实验种群的内禀增长力(rm)随温度升高而增加。透明溞的产卵率以20℃为最高,达1.4936;而隆线溞一亚种则在15℃为最高,达1.490。不同种类在各种温度下,卵一胚胎,幼体,成体3个发育阶段所需时间的百分比变化甚小。卵一胚胎占总发育时间(从卵进入孵育囊起至成体死亡止)的(5.08±0.42)%,幼体为(10.76±1.53)%,成体为(84.16+1.72)%。根据不同温度下总胚胎发育时间,并参考了文献中记载的资料,获得了溞属温度与总胚胎发育时间的曲线迥归方程: Ln D=3.5748+0.0769 LnT-0.3122(Ln T)2对隆线溞一亚种的形态、生态进行了描述,对它的分类地位进行了讨论。       

Life table and predatory efficiency of Stethorus gilvifrons (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), an important predator of the red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae (Acari: Tetranychidae), infesting tea

The ladybird beetle, Stethorus gilvifrons, is a major predator of the red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae, infesting tea. Biology, life table and predatory efficiency of S. gilvifrons were studied under laboratory conditions. Its average developmental period from egg to adult emergence was 19.2 days. After a mean pre-oviposition period of 5.3 days, each female laid an average of 149.3 eggs. Adult females lived for 117.3 days and males for 41.5 days. The life table of the beetle was characterized by an intrinsic rate of increase (r) of 0.066 day⁻¹, net reproductive rate (R ₀) of 72.2 eggs/female, gross reproduction rate (Σm _x ) of 82.3 eggs/female, generation time (T) of 64.9 days, doubling time of 10.5 days and finite rate of increase (λ) of 1.07 day⁻¹. Population dynamics of S. gilvifrons and its prey, O. coffeae, was monitored by sampling 25 tea leaves from each experimental block grown under the prevailing field conditions. Populations of S. gilvifrons reached a peak during January to March and had low incidence during June to November. Peaks in the populations of S. gilvifrons coincided with the abundance of O. coffeae in tea fields. Weather factors such as low temperature, high humidity and heavy rainfall adversely affected the populations of S. gilvifrons. The predatory efficiency of S. gilvifrons increased during the growth of larval instars. An adult female consumed 205.0 eggs, 92.2 larvae, 81.8 nymphs and 52.4 adult mites per day.     

Intrinsic rate of natural increase of Brueelia amandavae (Ischnocera, Phthiraptera) populations infesting Indian red avadavat

The incubation period of eggs, duration of three nymphal instars, adult longevity and the daily egg-deposition rate of the ischnoceran Phthiraptera, Brueelia amandavae, were determined by rearing the louse in vitro (35 ± 1°C, 75–82% RH, feather diet). The data obtained were utilized for life table construction and determination of the intrinsic rate of natural increase (0.031 per day) and the doubling time (23.45 days) of the louse population. The doubling time of the louse in in vivo experiments was 21.5 days.     

Development of Encarsia bimaculata (Heraty and Polaszek) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) nymphs

Encarsia bimaculata was recently described from India as a potentially useful parasitoid of Bemisia tabaci. Its developmental biology was studied in the laboratory at 25–30 °C and 70–75% RH. Results showed that E. bimaculata is a solitary, arrhenotokous, heteronomous, autoparasitoid. Mated females laid eggs internally in B. tabaci nymphs that developed as primary parasitoids. Males developed as hyperparasitoids, either in females of their own species or in other primary aphelinid parasitoids. Superparasitism was common under cage conditions. Both sexes have an egg, three larval instars, prepupal, and pupal stages. Development from egg to adult took 12.70 ± 2.10 days for females and 14.48 ± 2.60 days for males. Individual B. tabaci nymphs were examined for E. bimaculata parasitization using three isozymes: esterase, malate dehydrogenase, and xanthine dehydrogenase. All three isozymes showed differential banding patterns that identified E. bimaculata parasitized or unparasitized B. tabaci nymphs.     

Morphology and development of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pteromalus cerealellae</Emphasis> (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callosobruchus maculatus</Emphasis> (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Pteromalus cerealellae (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is an ectoparasitoid of several stored-product insect pests. Very little information has been published on its biology and development in host larvae, which typically are concealed within seeds. We documented the development of P. cerealellae within fourth instar larvae of its concealed host, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) infesting cowpea seeds. The preimaginal life stages of the parasitoid were characterized for the first time using morphological structures revealed by microscopic techniques including scanning electron microscopy. Pteromalus cerealellae produces hymenopteriform eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch into 13-segmented first instar larvae with peripneustic condition of spiracles. The larvae have simple, tusk-like mandibles, whereas the mandibles of the pupae and the adults are of the conventional toothed types. Using statistical analyses of the sizes of the larval mandibles and head capsules in conjunction with reliable characters such as the number of exuviae on the body of parasitoid larvae, cuticular folding, and excretion of the meconium, we recorded four larval instars for P. cerealellae. The data showed significant positive correlations between larval mandible lengths and widths of larval head capsules, as well as between mandible lengths and larval instars, suggesting that mandible length is a good predictor of the number of instars in P. cerealellae. Developmental time from egg to adult emergence was ∼12 d for females and ∼11 days for males at 30 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% r.h. and 12L:12D photoperiod.     

Influence of temperature on growth, reproduction and longevity of Moina salina Daday, 1888 (Cladocera, Moinidae)

This paper presents the results of a study of the effects oftemperature on the growth, reproduction and longevity of thecladoceran Moina salina, a species of potential use as livefood in marine aquaculture. The growth rate of M.salina increasedwith increasing temperature. Some parameters of development,such as length at death and the number of adult instars, werealso positively related to temperature. Other parameters (durationof juvenile and adult instars) decreased with increasing temperature,while the number of juvenile instars was unaffected. An increasein temperature resulted in a reduction in age at maturity anda decrease in the number of days between broods. The numberof young per female, the number of broods per female, the numberof youngper day of reproductive life, and the number of youngper brood, increased up to a temperature of 25°C. At 15and 20°C. substantial degeneration of eggs and/or embryosoccurred. Likewise, temperature affected the type of reproductioncarried out by sexual females. Temperature and longevity wereinversely correlated. It was concluded that temperature actsas a very important factor regulating the life cycle of M.salina.Temperature >30°C may correspond to sublethal levels,while a temperature of 15°C is considered to impose stress.The range 20–25°C is optimal for the development andreproduction of this species.