Temporal variability of aphid biological control in contrasting landscape contexts

Landscape complexity may provide ecosystem services to agriculture through the provision of natural enemies of agricultural pests. Strong positive effect of adjacent semi-natural habitats on natural enemies in croplands has been evidenced, but the resulting impact on biological control remains unclear. Taking into account the temporal dynamics of pest and natural enemies in agricultural landscapes provides better resolution to the studies and better understanding of the biological control service.In this study, the population dynamics of aphids and two groups of predators (coccinellid and carabid beetles) were examined. Insects were sampled in 20 wheat fields, surrounded by structurally simple and complex landscapes in Chilean central valley. Considering the whole sampling period, the diversity of aphids and natural enemies were similar in wheat crops surrounded by both types of landscapes, and the abundance of ladybirds was higher in crops in the complex landscapes. The dynamics of predators was more advanced in complex landscapes than in the simple ones, whereas the dynamics of aphids were similar in both types of landscape. Negative correlation between abundance of predators and aphid population growth rate in both landscape contexts were observed suggesting a control of the pest population by the predators. Different temporal patterns were observed in these correlations in the two landscape contexts, which suggests differences in the biological control related to the landscape composition.The present study shows that colonization of crops by natural enemies occurs sooner in structurally complex landscapes and suggests that this early colonization may facilitate an early and efficient control of aphid populations, nevertheless the biological control efficiency seems to be higher in structurally simple landscapes later in the season.     

道路对景观的影响及其生态风险评价--以澜沧江流域为例

道路贯穿于各类景观。道路网络的发展也产生了许多生态效应。道路的生态风险分析是基于生态效应,通过格局和过程的研究,综合评估各类潜在生态影响及其累积性后果。从景观生态学理论入手．分析了道路对景观的影响,将道路对景观的影响区分为建设期和运营期2个阶段,并提出了基于格局和过程的生态环境指数,进而得出道路综合生态风险评价的方法。以澜沧江流域上中下游的3个典型区为例,研究道路对景观的影响。结果表明,虽然不同案例区道路影响的景观类型和格局不同,其风险的分布也不同．但综合风险指数和道路密度具有很高的一致性。     

Topographical pattern of the forest vegetation on a river basin in a warm-temperate hilly region,central Japan

The relationship between tree distribution and topography was examined in a small river basin (3.4 ha) comprising a complex mosaic of topographical units at 10² to 10³ m² order, each of which had a shallow valley bordered by small ridges or breaks of slopes. Twenty-five major woody species were divided into two groups (groups A and B) based on a cluster analysis using the distribution data in the basin. Group A, which mainly consisted of early-successional species, was distributed around the valley sites of the topographical units, while group B, which mainly consisted of late-successional species, was distributed around the ridge sites of the topographical units. This vegetation pattern coincided with erosional condition in the basin. That is, the valley sites were eroded more actively than the ridge sites, as soil depth tended to be thin in the valley sites and thick in the ridge sites, and because large (canopy) trees were restricted in the ridge sites. There was no tendency that group B was replacing group A, and hence it was suggested that repeated disturbance by slope failures or small-scale shallow landslides have prevented compositional change from the early-successional (group A) to the late-successional (group B) species by preventing the invasion of the latter into valley sites.     

基于源汇景观单元的流域土壤侵蚀风险格局识别

人类活动影响下的土地利用及其景观格局会在一定程度上影响流域土壤侵蚀的发生发展。选取位于三峡库区的綦江流域作为研究区,利用2015年航空影像数据、数字高程模型和土壤数据库,进行水文响应单元的划分,以此作为研究区的源汇景观单元。综合景观类型、土壤和坡度对土壤侵蚀影响的贡献,构建源汇景观单元权重,在此基础上,对景观空间负荷对比指数进行修正并进行土壤侵蚀风险格局识别,最后利用修正的通用土壤侵蚀方程进行土壤侵蚀的模拟,以此验证风险格局的合理性,并综合分析了源汇景观空间特征:源汇景观单元组成结构、权重和土壤侵蚀风险。结果表明:(1)源汇景观单元权重大的地区主要分布在中低山区向低丘缓坡区过渡的地带,坡度较大、土壤可蚀性较高,以及水田、旱地和居民点的源汇景观单元也较为集中分布。(2)各子流域的景观空间负荷对比指数与平均土壤侵蚀模数具有显著正相关关系,因此基于源汇景观单元并赋予其权重的景观空间负荷对比指数能较好地反映流域内部土壤侵蚀规律,可作为流域土壤侵蚀风险评价的有效方法之一。(3)依据各子流域的景观空间负荷对比指数特征可将库区綦江流域划分为五大土壤侵蚀景观风险区:北部沿江地区各子流域耕地分布较为集中且相对水流路径较短,以及林草地较少,土壤侵蚀风险大;中部丘陵地区源景观单元分布较为分散,景观空间分布不均衡,存在一定的土壤侵蚀风险;南部中低山区以林地汇景观分布为主,源景观分布相对较小,土壤侵蚀风险较低。     

渭河源流域源汇景观演变对径流泥沙的影响

探讨源汇景观演变特征与径流泥沙的关系对定量识别源汇景观功能对生态过程的影响具有重要的科学意义。以位于黄土高原和西秦岭山地交错区域的渭河源为例,分析了流域源汇景观格局演变与降雨耦合驱动对径流和泥沙的影响,结果表明:(1)研究区1982—2017年汇景观比例逐渐增加并超过源景观,源汇景观功能演变主要发生在黄土丘陵区,源汇景观负荷比指数呈逐年下降趋势;(2)影响流域径流和泥沙的主要因素不同,洪峰流量与含沙量主要受源景观面积比例和源汇景观负荷比的影响,呈显著的下降趋势,而径流量仅与降水量存在相关性;(3)基于信息理论方法的相对重要性分析表明,降雨对流域径流量的相对重要性高于源汇景观负荷比,而源汇景观负荷比对洪峰流量和含沙量的相对重要性较高,传输距离和海拔分布对径流泥沙和洪峰流量具有重要影响。在长时间尺度上,源汇景观格局演变影响了径流及泥沙特征,并且对泥沙影响的相对重要性高于径流。源汇景观合理的时空分布可以有效调控水土流失过程,对黄土高原生态可持续发展具有重要意义。     

Fine-scale vertical position as an indicator of vegetation in alkali grasslands – Case study based on remotely sensed data

Vertical position is an important driver of vegetation zonation at multiple scales, via determining abiotic environmental parameters, such as climate, soil properties and water balance. In inland alkali landscapes, elevation is a key factor for understanding patterns of salt accumulation and water table which is therefore considered a good indicator of alkali vegetation types. Remote sensing techniques offer viable solutions for linking elevation data to vegetation patterns by providing an elevation model of extended areas. Our goal was to test the relationships between fine-scale differences in vertical position and vegetation patterns in inland alkali landscapes by vegetation data collected in the field and elevation data generated using airborne laser scanning (ALS). We studied whether vertical position influences vegetation patterns at the level of main vegetation groups (based on alliances) or even at the level of associations. Our study sites were situated in a lowland alkali landscape in Hortobágy National Park (East-Hungary). We grouped the associations into four main vegetation groups: loess grasslands, alkali steppes, open alkali swards and alkali meadows. Even though we detected a very limited range (121 cm) in the vertical position of the main vegetation groups, they were well separated by their vertical positions. At the level of associations, a more detailed elevation-based distinction was also possible in many cases. The revealed elevation–vegetation correlations show that high-resolution mapping based on ALS remote sensing techniques is an ideal solution in complex lowland areas, such as alkali landscapes. Our findings suggest that in other types of lowland landscapes, characterised by elevation differences, the applied method might hold a great potential as a supporting tool for vegetation mapping.     

Geomorphology variables predict fish assemblages for forested and endorheic rivers of two continents

Stream fishes are restricted to specific environments with appropriate habitats for feeding and reproduction. Interactions between streams and surrounding landscapes influence the availability and type of fish habitat, nutrient concentrations, suspended solids, and substrate composition. Valley width and gradient are geomorphological variables that influence the frequency and intensity that a stream interacts with the surrounding landscape. For example, in constrained valleys, canyon walls are steeply sloped and valleys are narrow, limiting the movement of water into riparian zones. Wide valleys have long, flat floodplains that are inundated with high discharge. We tested for differences in fish assemblages with geomorphology variation among stream sites. We selected rivers in similar forested and endorheic ecoregion types of the United States and Mongolia. Sites where we collected were defined as geomorphologically unique river segments (i.e., functional process zones; FPZs) using an automated ArcGIS‐based tool. This tool extracts geomorphic variables at the valley and catchment scales and uses them to cluster stream segments based on their similarity. We collected a representative fish sample from replicates of FPZs. Then, we used constrained ordinations to determine whether river geomorphology could predict fish assemblage variation. Our constrained ordination approach using geomorphology to predict fish assemblages resulted in significance using fish taxonomy and traits in several watersheds. The watersheds where constrained ordinations were not successful were next analyzed with unconstrained ordinations to examine patterns among fish taxonomy and traits with geomorphology variables. Common geomorphology variables as predictors for taxonomic fish assemblages were river gradient, valley width, and valley slope. Significant geomorphology predictors of functional traits were valley width‐to‐floor width ratio, elevation, gradient, and channel sinuosity. These results provide evidence that fish assemblages respond similarly and strongly to geomorphic variables on two continents.     

The interplay between local and landscape scales on the density of pond-dwelling anurans in subtropical grasslands

We investigated the role of local and landscape environmental variables on anurans density classified as habitat specialists and generalists in grassland landscapes, known as South Brazilian grasslands (SBG). In this region, we surveyed 187 ponds distributed over 40 landscape sampling units. For each pond, 31 local environmental variables were measured. Each landscape sampling unit was embedded within a larger regional sampling unit with different landscape properties. For each landscape and regional sampling units, 16 landscape metrics were extracted from a land cover and use map. We recorded 35 species, eleven of which are specialists in the SBG. The specialists were affected by 11 local and 2 landscape environmental variables, while generalists were affected by 14 local and one landscape environmental variable. Thus, specialists and generalists presented different relationships with local and landscape variables, but in general local variables had a greater influence on the density of anurans than the landscape variables. However, the landscape indirectly influenced local variables because higher quality ponds were in landscapes with higher percentages of natural habitat. In conclusion, reproductive sites with higher local quality and located within landscapes with higher percentages of natural grasslands are essential to conserve anurans in this habitat. Effective conservation of such sites would benefit from further studies that assess effects of land use and biotic integrity of ponds, which can help to determine (a) the relative effects of local habitat quality of ponds and (b) the effectiveness of protecting ponds and their local surroundings for anuran conservation in SBG. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Diversity of tropical forest landscape types in Hainan Island, China

A novel landscape classification system was proposed in this study based on landscape ecological theory and the differentiation in climate, topography, soil, vegetation and land use mode. Five basic units (zone, tract, province, region and type) and two assistant units (sub and group) were used in this system. The tropical forest landscape in Hainan Island was regarded as a landscape province, belonging to global tropical forest landscape zone, Asiatic (oriental) tropical forest landscape tract and Chinese tropical forest landscape subtract. Based on the grade system of region, sub-region, type-group and type, this landscape province (Hainan Island) is divided into 6 landscape regions (east moist forest landscape, west semi-arid forest landscape, central-south mountainous forest landscape, tropical evergreen needle-leaved forest landscape, tropical bamboo landscape and tropical plantation landscape), 11 tropical forest landscape sub-regions represented by tropical lowland valley rain forest landscape, 26 tropical forest landscape-type groups represented by tropical lowland valley Dipterocarpaceae forest landscape, and 54 forest landscape types (FLT) represented by lowland valley Vatica mangachapoi forest. Generally, this classification system represents the landscape diversity of the tropical forest in Hainan Island. Further studies are needed to better understand the landscape diversity of Hainan Island.     

Diversity of tropical forest landscape types in Hainan Island, China

A novel landscape classification system was proposed in this study based on landscape ecological theory and the differentiation in climate, topography, soil, vegetation and land use mode. Five basic units (zone, tract, province, region and type) and two assistant units (sub and group) were used in this system. The tropical forest landscape in Hainan Island was regarded as a landscape province, belonging to global tropical forest landscape zone, Asiatic (oriental) tropical forest landscape tract and Chinese tropical forest landscape subtract. Based on the grade system of region, sub-region, type-group and type, this landscape province (Hainan Island) is divided into 6 landscape regions (east moist forest landscape, west semi-arid forest landscape, central-south mountainous forest landscape, tropical evergreen needle-leaved forest landscape, tropical bamboo landscape and tropical plantation landscape), 11 tropical forest landscape sub-regions represented by tropical lowland valley rain forest landscape, 26 tropical forest landscape-type groups represented by tropical lowland valley Dipterocarpaceae forest landscape, and 54 forest landscape types (FLT) represented by lowland valley Vatica mangachapoi forest. Generally, this classification system represents the landscape diversity of the tropical forest in Hainan Island. Further studies are needed to better understand the landscape diversity of Hainan Island.     

岩溶地区景观格局演变及其生态安全的时空分异——以贵州省东北部槽谷为例

景观生态安全能反映区域生态保护与经济发展之间的关系,有助于了解生态环境压力和缓解人地关系矛盾具有重要意义。基于2005、2010、2014和2017年LandSat影像为数据源,借助ArcGIS和景观格局指数法构建景观生态安全指数,对槽谷区景观格局演变及其对生态安全的时空分异规律研究,从而提出环境友好型的土地利用组合模式。结果表明：（1）2005—2017年,槽谷区景观内部整体呈现破碎化,景观斑块数量增多,景观格局由单一规则化、简单化向复杂混合型转变,多样性增加且空间异质性增强。随着时间变化,岩溶槽谷区景观生态安全整体呈现上升趋势,西、东部槽谷景观生态安全指数（Ecological Security Index,ESI）由槽坝向山坡两侧逐渐增加,而中部槽谷则由山坡向槽坝增加。（2）在200 m尺度下,西部槽谷ESI的全局正相关性最显著,其Moran''s I值呈先增加后减小的趋势,而中部和东部槽谷则相反。岩溶槽谷区ESI的空间集聚形式主要表现为高高和低低值集聚区,空间集聚程度较高,而高低和低高集聚区分布较少且变化不明显。（3）景观集聚分布格局受低地形起伏和坡度较缓区域影响较高且呈现倒"U"型共性趋势,而海拔则相反。（4）岩溶槽谷区景观格局以扩充"林地-灌木林地-草地"的土地利用组合模式能增加景观生态安全。（5）景观格局及其生态安全的时空分异是受当地自然环境、社会经济和政策导向共同作用的结果,通过分析多重因素对槽谷区景观格局及其生态安全演变趋势的驱动机制可为地区科学决策提供科学参考。     

Vegetation structure in relation to micro-landform in an evergreen broad-leaved forest on Amami Ohshima Island,south-west Japan

The relationship between micro-landform and vegetation structure was studied in a plot that was established on a slope from the ridge to the valley bottom in an evergreen broad-leaved forest on Amami Ohshima Island, south-west Japan. Five micro-landform units recognized in the plot were grouped into the upper and lower slopes by their location in relation to the erosion front, and plant distributions and vegetation structure were compared between them. Although small trees with d.b.h. less than 10 cm occurred almost all over the plot, the occurrence of larger trees was limited mostly to the upper slope. Based on the spatial distribution pattern in the plot, woody species are classified into three groups: group A mostly or strictly confined to the upper slope; group B confined to the lower slope; and group C associated statistically with neither slope. A well-developed forest stand, whose dominant species wereCastanopsis sieboldii ssp.lutchuensis andSchima wallichii, was seen on the upper slope, whereas only a poorly developed stand was seen on the lower slope. The difference in stability of the land surface is likely to be the major cause of the observed differences in stand structure between the upper and lower slopes. It is suggested that the erosion front is important as a line demarcating different habitats within a slope from the ridge to the valley bottom.     

Scaling properties of multivariate landscape structure

Analyses of landscape context is essential for understanding how ecological patterns and processes relate to space. This requires that we quantify variation patterns of different landscape parameters, which may change relative to one another at different spatial scales. Here, we analyzed how statistical relationships of land-use composition parameters changed as a function of extent in 20 real agricultural landscapes. Furthermore, we tested the generality of these scaling relations in numerical simulations using 300 artificial landscapes. We analyzed proportions of artificial habitat types at different extent and compared these patterns with three dominant habitat types in real landscapes (forest, arable land and grassland) at four spatial scales (quadrates of 1–4 km). Both real and simulated landscapes showed that variance of landscape parameters (data differentiation) decreased and their correlations (data consistency) increased as scale increased, thereby suggesting general scaling laws. The potential statistical impact of these scaling relationships is revealed in simultaneous analyses of variation of (local) site parameters of 20 arable fields and their surrounding landscape context. At small and medium extent (quadrates of 1–3 km), variability of local site parameters (e.g. fertilization, pH-value) was high relative to those of landscape parameters. In contrast, at large extent (quadrates of 4 km) variability of landscape parameters was greater than that of site parameters indicating a fundamental shift in the relationship between these sets of parameters at different scales. Hence, it is clear that there is a high risk of artefactual correlations in hierarchical multi-scale landscape analyses when ecological data are related to the landscape context. Accordingly, there is a necessity for multi-scale analyses in landscape ecology to accurately evaluate the relative importance of landscape context at different spatial scales.     

An Investigation of the Soil Property Changes and Heavy Metal Accumulation in Relation to Long-term Wastewater Irrigation in the Semi-arid Region of Iran

Concentrations and spatial distribution of Zn, Cu, Cd, and Pb along two landscapes including a wastewater-irrigated area and a control area were determined to assess the impact of long-term wastewater irrigation and landscape properties on heavy metal contamination. Some disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were taken from soil trenches and soil cores, located on three main landscape positions (upper slope, midslope, and lower slope) in northwestern Iran. The investigation showed that the mean concentration of the heavy metals followed the order Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd in the wastewater-irrigated soil and Pb > Zn > Cu > Cd in the control soils. On average, compared to similar positions in the control region, the wastewater-irrigated regions contained 3.0 (midslope) to 4.9 (lower slope), 2.7 (midslope) to 4.6 (lower slope), 3.3 (upper slope) to 4.1 (lower slope), and 1.7 (upper slope) to 2.6 (lower slope) times higher amounts of Zn, Cu, Cd, and Pb, respectively. Significant positive relationships (P < 0.05) were recorded between the heavy metals concentration with <0.002 mm particle-size fraction and organic matter content, the fractions linked to runoff and soil erosion. It is believed that the two soil fractions play a crucial role in the distribution of the metals along the wastewater-irrigated landscape. Despite the significant increase of heavy metals (P < 0.05) in the wastewater-irrigated soils compared with control soils, the concentration of all evaluated metals was below the maximum accepted limits (Zn < 300 mg/kg, Cu < 100 mg/kg, Cd < 5 mg/kg, and Pb < 100 mg/kg), and grouped as “not-enriched” to “moderately-enriched” categories regarding the topsoil enrichment index. Overall, the lower slope was shown to be more contaminated with the heavy metals compared to the other positions.     

Bird community responses to habitat fragmentation: how consistent are they across landscapes?

Aim The woodland ecosystems of south‐eastern Australia have been extensively disturbed by agriculture and urbanization. Herein, the occurrence of birds in woodland remnants in three distinct landscapes was analysed to examine the effects of different types of landscape matrices on species richness vs. area and species richness vs. isolation relationships and individual species responses to woodland fragmentation. Location The study system comprised three distinct woodland landscapes of the northern Australian Capital Territory and bordering areas of New South Wales. These landscapes (termed agricultural, peri‐urban and urban) are located within 50 km of each other, have remnant fragments of similar age, size, isolation, woodland cover, elevation and climates. The major distinguishing feature of the three landscapes was the properties of the habitats surrounding the numerous woodland remnants. Methods Bird surveys, using an area‐search methodology, were conducted in 1999 and 2000 in 127 remnants in the three landscapes to determine bird species presence/absence. Each remnant was characterized by measures of remnant area, isolation and habitat complexity. To characterize differences between each landscape, we conducted an analysis of the amount of tree cover and human disturbance in each landscape using SPOT imagery and aerial photographs. Linear regressions of woodland‐dependent species richness vs. remnant area and remnant isolation for the three different landscapes were calculated to see if there were any apparent differences. Binomial logistic regressions were used to determine the relationships between the occurrence of each species and the size and isolation of woodland habitat, in each landscape. Results All the landscapes displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species vs. area relationship, but the slope of the urban relationship was significantly greater than those of the other landscapes. In contrast, only the agricultural landscape displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species richness vs. isolation relationship. When individual species were investigated, we found species that were: (1) apparently insensitive to reduction in remnant area and increase in isolation across all landscapes, (2) absent in small remnants in all landscapes, (3) absent in small remnants in all landscapes and also absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, (4) absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, and (5) absent in small remnants in the urban landscape. Threshold values (50% probability of occurrence) for area and isolation for individual species were highly variable across the three landscapes. Main conclusions These results indicate that woodland bird communities have a varying response to habitat fragmentation in different landscapes. Whilst we cannot be sure how representative our chosen landscapes are of other similarly composed landscapes, these results suggest that the type of landscape matrix may have a considerable influence on how bird species are affected by woodland fragmentation in the region. For instance, the properties of a matrix may influence both the resources available in the landscape as a whole for different bird species, and the connectivity (dispersal of birds), between woodland remnants. We encourage further research that examines these hypotheses and argue that the management of the matrix should be included in conservation strategies for fragmented landscapes.     

大渡河中游干暖河谷区生境对植物群落分布格局和多样性的影响

大渡河中游干暖河谷区滑坡和泥石流灾害频发, 对该区域坡面植物群落的研究有助于揭示植被演替的方向, 为坡面植被生态恢复提供基本依据。本研究沿大渡河中游河谷区每隔约5 km设置典型样地, 调查了植被的物种组成和分布以及样地的地形、土壤等10个生境因子, 探讨河谷区植被的连续性变化, 并通过多元回归树(multivariate regression trees, MRT)、多样性指数和典范对应分析(canonical correspondence analysis, CCA)等方法对植物群落进行分类、比较和排序。结果表明: 大渡河中游干暖河谷植被以土壤碳含量、pH值和C : N等3个因子为节点, 可划分为多花胡枝子(Lespedeza floribunda)-荩草(Arthraxon hispidus)-香薷(Elsholtzia ciliate)(群落A)、地果(Ficus tikoua)-车桑子(Dodonaea viscosa)-川滇薹草(Carex schneideri)(群落B)、云南松(Pinus yunnanensis)-栓皮栎(Quercus variabilis)(群落C)和荩草-扭黄茅(Heteropogon contortus)(群落D)等4种群落。该区域以灌木和草本为主要植被类型(群落A、B、C), 间或有裸地分布, 易成为泥石流灾害产生的物源区; 以多花胡枝子为主的灌草群落A的物种丰富度、优势度与多样性表现一致, 均高于以乔木和草本为主的群落C和D, 但物种多样性优势并不显著, 灌草群落分布广而结构单一, 外来物种占比为8.33%, 是生态系统脆弱和不稳定的表现。多元回归树和典范对应分析结果表明, pH值、C : N、坡向和土壤容重等4个因子对植物群落组成和分布影响最大, 且土壤因子的影响大于地形因子。     

How dung beetles respond to a human‐modified variegated landscape in Mexican cloud forest: a study of biodiversity integrating ecological and biogeographical perspectives

Aim To analyse how the dung beetles (Scarabaeinae) respond to a modified, variegated landscape, taking into account the biogeographical peculiarities of the Mexican Transition Zone. Location This study covers cloud forest (CF) of the Sierra Norte de Puebla mountain range and part of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range (Mexico). Methods We applied proportional sampling based on the landscape variegation model with Scarabaeinae as the indicator group, and using two approaches: structural units (vegetation type) and spatial units (windows). We used two measures – richness and Shannon diversity – and applied multiplicative diversity partitioning to obtain independent alpha and beta diversities for the landscape, windows and vegetation types. We grouped species by biogeographical distribution pattern for the biogeographical analysis and by whether they were originally from CF. Results The transformation of CF into secondary forest, pastures and other types of vegetation increases the Scarabaeinae diversity of the landscape, in vegetation types and windows. This increase is the result of species arriving from the tropical lowlands. However, the original dung beetle community of the CF dominates at different scales in the number of species, abundance and biomass. With increasing habitat modification, beta diversity increases in the windows, and species with the Tropical Palaeoamerican distribution pattern increase in abundance in vegetation types and windows. Main conclusions The variegated character of the landscape explains well the distribution and diversity of this dung beetle community. The peculiar characteristics of the Mexican Transition Zone have an effect owing to the overlap of fauna with different biogeographical origins. The conversion of fragmented landscapes to variegated landscapes could be a conservation goal in human‐modified mountain landscapes. Sampling proportional to the area of different types of vegetation and the use of windows offer an alternative experimental design in variegated landscapes.     

Use of indigenous ecological knowledge of the Maasai pastoralists for assessing rangeland biodiversity in Tanzania

This paper incorporates the indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) of the Maasai pastoralists and ecological methods to assess effects of grazing and cropping on rangeland biodiversity at macro‐ and micro‐landscape scales in northern Tanzania. The joint surveys with pastoralists identified indicator plant species and their associations with micro‐landscapes and livestock grazing suitability (i.e. for cattle and small ruminant grazing), while traditional calf‐pasture reserves (alalili pl. alalilia) were evaluated for preservation of rangeland biodiversity. The macro‐landscapes comprising the cool high plateau (osupuko pl. isipuki) and montane forest highland (endim) were included in the survey. At micro‐landscape scales, the osupuko was classified into uplands (orkung'u), slopes (andamata) and dry valley bottomlands (ayarata). The micro‐landscapes were assessed in terms of herbaceous plant species and woody species richness and risks of soil erosion. Biodiversity varied at both the macro‐ and micro‐landscape scales and in accordance with the land‐use types. Greater plant species diversity and less erosion risks were found in the pastoral landscapes than in the agro‐pastoral landscapes. The calf‐grazing pastures had greater herbaceous species richness than the non‐calf pastures, which in turn had more woody species. The study concludes that the indigenous systems of landscape classification provides a valuable basis for assessing rangeland biodiversity, which ecologists should incorporate into ecological surveys of the rangelands in East Africa in the future.     

生态美学视角下宁夏贺兰山国家级自然保护区视觉景观特征评估

景观美学的理论维度已从风景美学延伸至生态美学,为促进生态美学理论在客观法和空间水平上向"数字化+可视化"发展,以宁夏贺兰山国家级自然保护区为例,创新性地提出了利用地理要素构建分类的数字景观模型并借用基于景观生态学的景观格局指数进行视觉景观特征评估的研究框架。在筛选地貌（自然和垂直要素）和土地利用（文化和水平要素）景观要素的基础上,构建了一套景观分类指标体系;通过GIS进行空间叠加分析,识别了研究区域中的440种景观斑块和类型,以此作为视觉景观特征评估的基本单元;基于生态美学理论,构建了视觉景观多样性、自然性和独特性3个视觉景观特征评估指标,借用景观格局指数进行度量并通过FRAGSTATs与GIS可视化;通过SPCA分析得到权重后绘制了视觉景观特征综合评估的空间分布。结果显示,诸多相互作用的景观要素"聚集"在一起产生了不同水平的视觉景观特征,与低水平视觉景观特征有关的景观类型在要素组成上较为复杂,而与高水平视觉景观特征有关的景观类型主要与坡度适中的东南向山谷地貌与荒草地、未成林封育地和乔木林等土地利用的共同作用有关。研究认为,可视化的视觉景观特征评估结果有助于识别需得到保护修复、规划利用及管理协调的景观斑块或类型,有利于增加保护地整体的生态美学价值。