六种昆虫生长调节剂对葱蝇生长发育和繁殖力的影响

用灭蝇胺、氟铃脲等6种昆虫生长调节剂和对比药剂辛硫磷LC_40-50浓度处理葱蝇1龄和3龄幼虫,观察对其生长发育和繁殖的影响;并且研究了葱蝇成虫取食药剂对其繁殖力的控制效应。结果表明：6种药剂中除虫酰肼外,其余都对葱蝇幼虫发育历期、化蛹率、成虫产卵前期、成虫寿命、产卵量有很大影响,对其生长发育和繁殖表现出显著不利性。其中灭蝇胺和氟铃脲处理1龄幼虫后,存活幼虫的历期和成虫产卵前期各延长3天,化蛹率降低26.7%～30.0％,成虫寿命缩短22.3～24.3天,产卵量降低35.5％～49.9％;处理3龄幼虫主要导致产生畸形蛹,且正常羽化的成虫寿命降低18.0～20.67天,产卵量降低45.7%～57.8％。成虫连续取食用牛奶稀释的２ 000倍的药液,能导致产卵前期延长、产卵量减少、卵孵化率降低,幼虫死亡率极高,达95%以上。结果提示,利用成虫补充营养的特性,将灭蝇胺和氟铃脲等混入牛奶或糖水中诱集成虫取食,可有效降低成虫的繁殖力,有助于实现对葱蝇的无公害治理。     

Evidence for the importance of odour-perception in the parasitoid Rhopalicus tutela (Walker) (Hym., Pteromalidae)

Possible host location mechanisms in the chalcid wasp Rhopalicus tutela (Walker) (Hym., Pteromalidae), a parasitoid of the eight-spined spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus (L.) (Col., Scolytidae), were examined. This was carried out in order to repeat and complement former studies on parallel parasitoid–scolytid systems that had contradictory results. Morphological examinations of the parasitoid antennae were made using both scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Possible functions of the sensilla placodea (multiporous plate sensillum), and other sensilla present on the antennae, have been indicated. For the first time, the placoid sensilla in a pteromalid parasitoid have shown porous walls and numerous innervations, which are typical characteristics for chemoreceptors. Previously the placoid sensilla have been suggested to be an infrared receptor. In order to test the chemoreceptive ability of R. tutela females and males, a synthetic reference blend was analysed by combined gas chromatography and electroantennographic detector (GC-EAD). Their sensitivity to host-related volatiles (such as certain pheromone components and oxygenated monoterpenes) was significantly greater than that for host-tree-related compounds (monoterpene hydrocarbons). Employing an infrared thermo-scanner, the current study failed to detect 'hot spots' associated with susceptible hosts beneath the bark. Results from electrophysiology and electron microscopy revealed clear odour-perceptive functions of the parasitoid antennae. These results strongly support the major importance of volatiles in host location by the bark beetle parasitoid R. tutela .     

Venturia canescens parasitizing Galleria mellonella and Anagasta kuehniella: differing suitability of two hosts with highly variable growth potential

Venturia canescens (Grav.) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is a solitary larval koinobiont endoparasitoid, ovipositing in several larval instars of different pyralid moth species that are pests of stored food products. After oviposition, the host larva continues to feed and grow for at least several days, the precise time doing so depending on the stage attacked. We examined the relationship between host stage and body mass on parasitoid development in late second to fifth instars of two hosts with highly variable growth potential: the wax moth, Galleria mellonella (L) and the flour moth, Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller)(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). G. mellonella is the largest known host of V. canescens, with healthy larvae occasionally exceeding 400mg at pupation, whereas those of A. kuehniella rarely exceed 40 mg at the same stage. Parasitoid survival was generally higher in early instars of G. mellonella than in later instars. By contrast, percentage adult emergence in A. kuehniella was highest in late fifth instar and lowest in late second instar. A. kuehniella was the more suitable host species, with over 45% adult emergence in all instars, whereas in G. mellonella we found less than 35% adult emergence in all instars. Adult parasitoid size increased and egg-to-adult development time decreased in a host size- and instar-specific manner from A. kuehniella. The relationship between host size and stage and these fitness correlates was less clear in G. mellonella. Although both host species were parasitized over a similar range of fresh weights, the suitability weight-range of A. kuehniella was considerably wider than G. mellonella for the successful development of V. canescens. However, in hosts of similar weight under 5 mg when parasitized, larger wasps emerged from G. mellonella than from A. kuehniella. Parasitoid growth and development is clearly affected by host species, and we argue that patterns of host utilization and resource acquisition by parasitoids have evolved in accordance with host growth potential and the nutritional requirements of the parasitoid.     

Development and feeding efficiency of Malacosoma neustrium larvae reared with Quercus spp. leaves

Observations on larval development of Malacosoma neustrium were conducted both in a cork oak stand and in the laboratory by using leaves of different host trees (cork oak, holm oak and downy oak) as food source. Instars were determined using head capsule and frass measurements. In the field the larvae progressed up to the fifth instar before pupating, and the increase in head capsule width followed Dyars Rule with a rate of increase (R.I.) value of 1.74. The same number of instars was determined for the larvae reared with cork oak (R.I. = 1.73) and holm oak (R.I. = 1.70) leaves. The caterpillars reared with downy oak foliage completed larval development in five, six and seven instars and the R.I. values obtained were 1.60, 1.52 and 1.44 respectively. A lower mortality was recorded for the larvae reared on holm oak. Growth and feeding indices were determined for the larvae from the third up to the last instar. The highest leaf consumption was detected for the fifth instar larvae reared on holm oak. For the caterpillars which completed five instars before pupating, the relative consumption rate (RCR) decreased from the third up to the fifth instar: from 4.8 to 1.7 (cork oak), from 7.4 to 3.3 (holm oak) and from 14.3 to 2.1 (downy oak). The relative growth rate (RGR) was highest during the fourth stadium (0.24, 0.27 and 0.33 for larvae reared with cork oak, holm oak and downy oak leaves respectively) and decreased in the fifth instar (0.09, 0.14 and 0.14 for larvae reared with cork oak, holm oak and downy oak leaves respectively), probably because of greater expense of energy due to the approach of maturity. Feeding and growth indices could be useful to define a defoliation prediction model.     

Feeding and foraging behaviour of a generalist caterpillar: are third instars just bigger versions of firsts?

Similarities and differences in foraging behaviour between first and third instar Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek (Fabaceae) (mung bean) were determined by frequent, repeated observation of insects on whole plants. The time apportioned to feeding, resting and searching by these two larval instars differed. Third instars were often found feeding on exposed areas of the plant and, if in the terminal parts, would leave these areas more frequently than first instars. Third instars fed at fewer sites and spent less time searching and resting, fed in longer bouts and spent 20% more time feeding than first instars. Although both instars tended to move upwards to the top of the plant, this applied to approximately half of the third instars observed compared to all of the first instars. First instars were found to have a higher relative growth rate than third instars. The results show that it cannot be assumed that first instars are just smaller versions of late instars.     

Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) feeding, development, and survival to adulthood after continuous exposure to Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis-treated potato foliage from the field

Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), feeding, development, and survival to adulthood were examined after continuously exposing large larvae to Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis-treated potato foliage from the field. In laboratory assays, the overall consumption and the length of period to become prepupae were determined for larvae, which began as 3rd and 4th instars, that were offered potato leaf disks with naturally declining levels of B. thuringiensis residue. In small-cage field experiments, survival to adulthood and the period to adult emergence for beetles confined to potato plants treated with B. thuringiensis beginning as 3rd and 4th instars also were examined. Third instars remaining on plants after a B. thuringiensis application were unlikely to feed and 4th instars consumed only approximately 50% as much foliage as those fed untreated foliage. Many late instars subjected to B. thuringiensis-treated foliage failed to survive to adulthood; 58-83% of these beetles died during the larval stage. Reduced feeding and poor survival of late instars suggest that counts of large larvae after application do not provide a complete picture of the efficacy of the B. thuringiensis treatment. Late instar Colorado potato beetles that were exposed continually to naturally declining levels of B. thuringiensis-treated potato foliage took an average of 1.8-4.5 d longer to become prepupae and 4-8 d longer to emerge as adults compared with those provided with untreated foliage. Delayed emergence of adults that fed on B. thuringiensis-treated potatoes as late instars indicated that development was prolonged in these insects because of ingestion of a sublethal dose of B. thuringiensis.     

Dynamics of immature stages of Anopheles arabiensis and other mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) in relation to rice cropping in a rice agro-ecosystem in Kenya.

We determined changes in species composition and densities of immature stages of Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes in relation to rice growth cycle in order to generate data for developing larval control strategies in rice ecosystems. Experimental rice paddies (6.3m x 3.15m) exposed to natural colonization of mosquitoes were sampled weekly for two rice growing cycles between February 2004 and March 2005. Overall, 21,325 Anopheles larvae were collected, of which 91.9% were 1st and 2nd instars and 8.1% were 3rd and 4th instars. An. arabiensis was the predominant species (84.1%) with other species, An. pharoensis (13.5%), An. funestus (2.1%), An. coustani (0.3%), and An. maculipalpis (0.1%) accounting for only a small proportion of the anophelines collected. Culex quinquefasciatus (65.7%) was the predominant species among the non-anopheline species. Others species collected included: C. annulioris (9.9%), C. poicilipes (7.3%), C. tigripes (7.2%), C. duttoni (0.6%), Aedes aegypti (5.3%), Ae. cumminsii (3.5%), and Ae. vittatus (0.7%). The densities of the major anopheline species were closely related to rice stage and condition of the rice field. An. arabiensis, the predominant species, was most abundant over a three-week period after transplanting. Low densities of larvae were collected during the late vegetative, reproductive, and ripening phases of rice. An increase in larval density ten days post-transplanting was found to correlate with the application of fertilizer (sulphate of ammonia). Culicine and aedine species densities were significantly higher during the post-harvesting period. Our results suggest that the transplanting stage is favorable for the growth of immature stages of An. arabiensis and provides a narrow window for targeted larval intervention in rice.     

Instar sizes,life cycles,and food habits of five Rhyacophila (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae) species from the Appalachian Mountains of South Carolina,U.S.A.

The larval head widths at each instar, life cycles, and food habits of late instars were determined for five species of Rhyacophila from two Appalachian mountain streams in South Carolina, U.S.A. Rhyacophila acutiloba Morse & Ross was univoltine with two cohorts, one emerging in the spring and another presumably emerging in early autumn. Rhyacophila fuscula (Walker), R. nigrita Banks, and R. carolina Banks were apparently multicohort, univoltine species with extended flight periods. Rhyacophila minor Banks was univoltine with a spring emergence. All species were predaceous and consumed mainly Plecoptera nymphs and Trichoptera larvae.     

Morphometric comparison of Simulium perflavum larvae (Diptera: Simuliidae) in relation to season and gender in Central Amazônia, Brazil

Number of larval instars, age structure and environmental effects on these parameters represent basic information in the study of insect population biology. When species have economic importance, this information is essential in order to choose the best period to apply different control methods and to determine the stages of the life cycle of the insect that are most susceptible to each treatment. The family Simuliidae has many species of medical/veterinary importance in the world, and some studies in the temperate region have suggested that the number of larval instars and the larval size can vary according to the season, gender and some environmental factors, such as temperature and diet. This study, with the zoophilic species Simulium perflavum Roubaud, is the first in the Neotropics observing some of these factors and will serve as a template for other species of medical importance in the region. S. perflavum larvae were collected in five streams in Central Amaz?nia (Manaus and Presidente Figueiredo counties, State of Amazonas), in Sept./Oct. 1996 (dry season) and Feb./Mar. 1997 (rainy season). These larvae were measured (lateral length of head capsule and width of cephalic apodema) to determine the number of larval instars (n=3985), to compare the larval size between seasons and genders (last and penultimate larval instars, n=200). Seven larval instars were determined for this species using frequency distributions, t-tests and Crosbys growth rule. Significant differences were not detected (t-test, p>0.05) in larval size between seasons and genders. Our results differ from some found in temperate regions suggesting that in the Neotropical region the larval size in different seasons and different genders remains constant, although some environmental parameters, such as diet, change depending on the season.     

Effects of carbon-dioxide anaesthesia on the number of instars,larval duration and adult body size of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica

Effects of repeated carbon-dioxide anaesthesia during larval development on the number of moults, larval duration, and the body size of resulting adults were investigated. Concentration of carbon dioxide administered was 70%, and each period of anaesthesia lasted for 3 min. Anaesthesia administered twice a week until the 3rd instar increased the number of instars required to reach maturity. However, repeated anaesthesia after the 4th instar scarcely influenced the number of instars. On the other hand, repeated anesthesia prolonged larval duration whenever administered during the early or late instars. It is thus suggested that anaesthesia by carbon dioxide during larval development has two distinct effects: increasing the number of moults and prolonging larval duration. The former is stage specific and effective only during early instars, whereas the latter is effective during any particular instars until the last instar. The body size of resulting adults remained almost the same as for controls even after the repeated carbon-dioxide anaesthesia as many as 14 times. Some further observations concerning correlations between the number of moults, larval duration and adult body size are shown, and differences between the sexes regarding the number of instars and larval duration are also presented.     

幼虫密度对甜菜夜蛾生长发育与繁殖的影响

为了研究甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua(Hübner)幼虫的密度对其发育及繁殖的影响,本实验观察了5种幼虫密度下（1,5,10,20,30头/瓶）,幼虫发育和成虫繁殖情况。结果表明：幼虫和蛹历期、存活率和蛹重均差异显著。幼虫和蛹历期均以20头/瓶的最短,1头/瓶的最长,其余随幼虫密度增加而延长;幼虫至蛹存活率以10头/瓶的最高,其余随幼虫密度增加而降低;1头/瓶的蛹最重,显著高于其他密度的,其余随幼虫密度增加而下降。尽管密度间成虫羽化率和产卵前期均无显著差异,但成虫产卵量、寿命和畸形率差异显著。1头/瓶的产卵量最多,其次为10头/瓶的,其余随幼虫密度增加而减少,30头/瓶的产卵量显著少于其他密度的; 密度在1～20头/瓶范围内,雌蛾寿命均较短,显著短于30头/瓶的,而雄蛾寿命以5头/瓶的最短,显著短于其他密度的（10头/瓶除外）,10头/瓶的次之,其余密度间差异不显著;不同幼虫密度下羽化的成虫畸形率差异显著,10头/瓶的最低,其余随幼虫密度增加而升高; 生命表结果表明甜菜夜蛾在10头/瓶下世代存活率和种群增长指数均最高,幼虫密度过低或过高均不利于种群增长;世代存活率（S）和种群增长指数（I）与幼虫密度之间的关系均呈抛物线关系：S =－0.2087x²+2.5694x+211.52 (R²=0.88),I=－0.0552x²+0.9166x+54.168 (R²=0.95)。结果提示幼虫密度影响甜菜夜蛾种群动态的重要生态因子之一。     

Caste Determination in Bombus terrestris: Differences in Development and Rates of JH Biosynthesis between Queen and Worker Larvae

To study the possible role of juvenile hormone in caste determination in Bombus terrestris, we measured development and rates of juvenile hormone biosynthesis in vitro in larvae destined to develop into either workers or queens. Larvae of both castes developed through four instars and had the same growth rates. However, the duration of the instars was longer for queen larvae, and their head width at the third and fourth instars was significantly larger. After validating the well-known radiochemical assay of JH for bumble bee larvae, we show that worker larvae corpora allata exhibited a constant and low rate of JH biosynthesis, never more than 5 pmol JH/h/pair. Queen larvae, in contrast, had two peaks of JH biosynthesis: a small one during the first instar, which has previously been correlated with caste determination; and a large peak, previously undetected, above 40 pmol JH/h/pair, during the second and third instars. We suggest that caste determination in this species is mediated by JH and that the duration of larval instars is a key factor. The possibility that the queen influences caste determination via an effect on instar duration is also discussed. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved     

Developmental variation in the forest tent caterpillar: life history consequences of a threshold size for pupation

In insects, size and age at adult emergence depend on larval growth that occurs in discrete steps or instars. Understanding the mechanisms controlling stepwise larval growth and the onset of metamorphosis is essential to the study of insect life history. We examined the patterns of growth of forest tent caterpillars Malacosoma disstria to quantify variation in the number of instars that larvae undergo before pupation, to identify the mechanisms underlying variation in larval development, and to evaluate the life history consequences of this variation. All caterpillars were reared under the same conditions; at each molt, the date, the head capsule width and the mass of the freshly molted insect were recorded. Logistic regression analysis showed that a threshold size (measured either as mass or head capsule width) must be reached at the beginning of a stadium for pupation to occur at the next molt. This threshold size was higher for females than for males, and as a result, females attained a higher pupal mass than males. To achieve this larger size, females often required more instars than males, despite a higher growth ratio (size increase within an instar). Within each sex, slow growing individuals exhibited more larval instars and longer larval development time, but attained the same pupal mass as faster growing individuals. The combination of a threshold size for pupation, discrete growth steps and variation in the number of these steps can thus complicate relationships between growth rate, pupal mass and larval development time. In our study, growth ratio and number of instars were correlated with development time but not with pupal mass, and no relationship was observed between development time and pupal mass. These findings imply that, in species with variable instar number, one cannot extrapolate overall larval growth from growth during a single instar. Given the constraints of discrete larval growth, variation in instar number provides greater flexibility for insects to compensate for poor growing conditions. In this case, inferior larval growth conditions don't necessarily lead to smaller adult size.     

Inter- and intra-specific differences in the number of larval instars in British populations of 24 species of stoneflies (Plecoptera)

1. Ontogenetic changes during the life cycle of aquatic insects are important not only in life‐history studies but also in evaluating food‐web structure. They require information on the growth and number of larval instars but such information is lacking for many species, including Plecoptera. Therefore, the chief objectives of the present study were to determine inter‐ and intra‐specific differences in the number of larval instars in British populations of 24 species of stoneflies, to test Dyar’s hypothesis that growth followed a geometric progression, and to synthesise this information with previously published values for four British species. 2. Larvae were reared at constant temperatures in the laboratory from eggs from 63 populations (one to six populations per species). First instars from each population were divided into three batches and each batch was reared at one of three constant temperatures. For each species, the rearing temperature and source population had no significant effect on the mean size of each larval instar. 3. The relationship between the geometric mean length of each instar and instar number was well described by an exponential equation (P < 0.001, r² > 0.9 for all species), thus supporting Dyar’s hypothesis. Only one species, Brachyptera risi, had the same number of instars for males and females (12–13). For the other 15 herbivorous species and the four smaller carnivorous ones, the number of instars was higher for females than males (range 11–16 for males, 12–17 for females). The larger size of the females was due to their additional instars, not a sex difference in growth rates. In contrast, there was a clear growth separation of the sexes after the 9th or 10th instar for the four largest carnivores. The number of larval instars was highest for these four species (range 16–19 for males, 18–23 for females), and females were much larger than males. 4. A multiple regression equation with data from the present and previous studies (n = 27) showed that variability in the mean length of the first instar and the maximum number of larval instars for each species accounted for 88% and 91% of the variability in the mean length of the final instar for males and females, respectively. 5. Values for Plecoptera in other countries were in general agreement with those in the present study, especially in the same families. Two old, but widely quoted, high values are doubtful. The present study and four previous ones provide a sound basis for ontogenetic studies on 28 species of Plecoptera and their role in aquatic ecosystems.     

Effect of thermoperiod on diapause intensity in Pyrrhocoris apterus (Heteroptera Pyrrhocoridae)

The intensity of adult diapause in Pyrrhocoris apterus was measured in two series of experiments as the duration of pre-oviposition period at a constant temperature of 25 degrees C after transfer from short (12L:12D) to long day conditions (18L:6D). Higher diapause intensity was induced with a thermoperiod than at constant temperatures. After the induction throughout larval instars 3-5 and during 4 weeks of adult life at short days and a thermoperiod of 25/15 degrees C the pre-oviposition period was 30+/-4 and 26+/-3 days. After induction at constant 25 degrees C the pre-oviposition period was 22+/-3 and 23+/-4 days, while after induction at constant 20 degrees C it was 17+/-4 and 19+/-4 days. Induction at a lower constant temperature of 20 degrees C was thus followed by a less intense diapause than the induction at a higher constant temperature of 25 degrees C. These counterintuitive results are discussed. The oxygen consumption rate measured at experimental temperatures prior to transfer from short to long days was higher at thermoperiodic conditions than at constant temperatures and it was similar at constant 20 and 25 degrees C. Thus, the oxygen consumption rate measured prior to the transfer was highest (indication of the least intense diapause) in the insects that showed later, after the transfer to long days, the longest pre-oviposition period (indication of the most intense diapause). Within the first two days after transfer to constant 25 degrees C, oxygen consumption rate measured at 25 degrees C decreased in the thermoperiodic insects, while it transiently increased in insects from constant 20 degrees C. Two days and later after the transfer, oxygen consumption rate was similar in all groups. Cold hardiness was not correlated with diapause intensity. The low lethal temperature in diapausing insects was correlated with the night temperature during diapause induction.     

Biological Strategies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dermestes maculatus</Emphasis> DeGeer (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) at Larval Stages in Different Temperatures

The intraspecific variation in larval instars is a widely distributed phenomenon amongst holometabolous insects. Several factors can affect the number of instars, such as temperature, humidity, and density. Only a few references could be found in the literature because the invariability in the number of larval instars is considered normal, and the issue has raised little to no interest. Despite this, no study to date has intended to assess or focus on the larval development. Here, we analyzed the effect of different rearing temperature on the larval stage of Dermestes maculatus DeGeer (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). The results indicated that at all temperatures, L5 represented a decisive point for individuals as well as the other later larval instars, because the next step to follow was to pupate or molt to the next larval instar. Furthermore, there were mainly two populations, L5 and L6, although in different proportions according to temperature. We also found that at a greater number of instars, the larval development at all temperatures lasted longer. Moreover, the exponential model was the best adjustment in the developmental time of all populations as well as for the accumulated developmental time of L1–L4. Thus, we conclude that random factors such as genetics could probably cause interspecific variability in D. maculatus larval development.     

Variation in growth and instar number in field and laboratory Manduca sexta

The tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta has been an important model system for understanding physiological control of growth, development and metamorphosis of insects for more than half a century. Like all Manduca, M. sexta typically has five larval instars, with developmental commitment to metamorphosis occurring early in the 5th (final) instar. Here we show that M. sexta from a field population in North Carolina (USA) shows substantial intraspecific variation in the number of larval instars when feeding on a modified artificial diet. Individuals with six instars consistently exhibited slower growth rates during early larval development than individuals with five instars. The frequency of individuals with six instars decreased with increased rearing temperature. In contrast, M. sexta from a laboratory colony consistently had five instars, and had more rapid larval growth rates than M. sexta from the field. We identify a threshold body size at the start of the 5th instar that predicts whether an individual will have five (greater than 600mg) or six instars (less than 600mg). Variation in field populations in Manduca provides an important resource for understanding physiological control, developmental plasticity and evolution of growth rate, body size and instar number.     

Alfalfa weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larval sampling: comparison of shake-bucket and sweep-net methods and effect of training

Two field-sampling methods, shake-bucket and sweep-net, were compared for use in monitoring alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhal), larvae in alfalfa hay of the high plains and intermountain region of North America. In this region, alfalfa grows to sufficient height to use both methods before the more damaging late instars peak in abundance. Both methods also were compared with extracting larvae by using Berlese funnels in the laboratory. The shake-bucket method was more sensitive in detecting small larvae (first and second instars) than large larvae (third and fourth instars), and the sweep-net method detected a lower proportion of small larvae. The number of larvae collected with the shake-bucket method was strongly correlated with number of larvae recovered from Berlese funnels (total larval counts, R2 = 0.85). Correlation of the sweep-net samples with the Berlese extraction was also significant but less strong (R2 = 0.56). In addition, sampler instruction was evaluated to determine whether demonstration training affects performance of inexperienced samplers using the two field-sampling methods. Training did not significantly change sampler performance in using the shake-bucket but did increase the number of large larvae when using the sweep-net. In addition, less variability was associated with the shake-bucket sampling method than with the sweep-net method for samplers who only had access to written sampling instructions. Therefore, when estimation of small larval abundance is desired for economic decision-making and sampling is performed by people with little or infrequent sampling experience, such as growers, the shake-bucket method is the preferred field-sampling method in the high plains and intermountain region of North America Sweep-net sampling is more variable than shake-bucket sampling, although demonstration training improves the usefulness of the sweep-net.     

Strategic larval decision-making in a bivoltine butterfly

In temperate areas, insect larvae must decide between entering winter diapause or developing directly and reproducing in the same season. Long daylength and high temperature promote direct development, which is generally associated with a higher growth rate. In this work, we investigated whether the larval pathway decision precedes the adjustment of growth rate (state-independent), or whether the pathway decision is conditional on the individual's growth rate (state-dependent), in the butterfly Pieris napi. This species typically makes the pathway decision in the penultimate instar. We measured growth rate throughout larval development under two daylengths: slightly shorter and slightly longer than the critical daylength. Results indicate that the pathway decision can be both state-independent and state-dependent; under the shorter daylength condition, most larvae entered diapause, and direct development was chosen exclusively by a small subset of larvae showing the highest growth rates already in the early instars; under the longer daylength condition, most larvae developed directly, and the diapause pathway was chosen exclusively by a small subset of slow-growing individuals. Among the remainder, the choice of pathway was independent of the early growth rate; larvae entering diapause under the short daylength grew as fast as or faster than the direct developers under the longer daylength in the early instars, whereas the direct developers grew faster than the diapausers only in the ultimate instar. Hence, the pathway decision was state-dependent in a subset with a very high or very low growth rate, whereas the decision was state-independent in the majority of the larvae, which made the growth rate adjustment downstream from the pathway decision.     

Sinusoidal magnetic fields and chawki (silkworm) rearing in sericulture

Effects of sinusoidal magnetic fields on chawki silkworm rearing have been studied. The experiment was conducted using a multi X Bi silkworm hybrid, PM x CSR 2. Disease-free layings were reared from hatching to cocooning and by subjecting first and second instar to three magnetic field frequencies: 0.1, 1.0, and 10 Hz at 1500 nT, pp, for six days at six hours per day. Controls were maintained simultaneously. Larval durations for both young-stage chawki (I and II) and late stage (III, IV, V) were calculated in days and hours, including the feeding and moulting periods for I to IV instars, and the feeding period for V instar up to the time of spinning. The study revealed that the magnetic exposures reduced both feeding and moulting times with no adverse effects on larval growth. The substantial reductions in time, 33 hours in instars I and II, and 64 hours in total larval duration, could be commercially important in chawki rearing, saving time, leaf consumption, and labor expenses.