Human Grief Resulting from the Death of a Pet

Abstract

This study investigated antecedents of the human grief response which was associated with the death of a pet cat or dog. The sample included 207 voluntary subjects who experienced this type of loss within a one-year time period prior to participating in the study. Data for the predictor variables were obtained from two validated instruments and a questionnaire developed by the author. Data for grief outcome were obtained from another validated instrument on three clinical and three validity scales. The results indicated that level of attachment to the deceased pet, perceived understanding from others and other stressful events combined to have significant predictive ability in grief outcome. Other analyses indicated qualitative differences in grief outcome according to gender of owner and the presence of children and/or more than one other adult in the household. No significant difference was found between single and multiple pet ownership in grief outcome.     

An Examination of Adult Women’s Sleep Quality and Sleep Routines in Relation to Pet Ownership and Bedsharing

ABSTRACT

People in many parts of the world commonly share their beds not only with human partners but also with dogs and cats. Self-report and actigraphy data have shown that sleeping with an adult human partner has both positive and negative impacts on human sleep, but there has been little exploration of the impacts that pets have on human sleep quality. We collected survey data online from 962 adult women living in the United States to investigate relationships between pet ownership and human sleep. Fifty-five percent of participants shared their bed with at least one dog and 31% with at least one cat. In addition, 57% of participants shared their bed with a human partner. Our findings did not show a strong relationship between pet ownership status or bedsharing conditions and sleep quality as assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), although according to this measure, a high percentage of study participants did experience sleep quality deficits. It is possible that pet ownership contributed to the high global PSQI scores we observed, especially since all but 7% of participants resided with dogs and/or cats. Other measures included in this study indicate that dogs and cats, and where they sleep, may indeed affect sleep habits and perceptions of sleep quality. Dog owners had earlier bedtimes and wake times than individuals who had cats but no dogs. Compared with human bed partners, dogs who slept in the owner’s bed were perceived to disturb sleep less and were associated with stronger feelings of comfort and security. Conversely, cats who slept in their owner’s bed were reported to be equally as disruptive as human partners, and were associated with weaker feelings of comfort and security than both human and dog bed partners. Follow-up research is necessary to determine if pet owners’ perceptions of pets’ impacts on their sleep align with objective measures of sleep quality.     

Preadolescents’ relationships with pet dogs: Relationship continuity and associations with adjustment

Research on human–animal interaction in children has been studied in isolation rather than integrated with core theories of children’s relationships. This study is one of the first to examine how children’s relationships with pet dogs are related to their human relationships (parent–child attachments, friendships) and to child adjustment, and to include observational assessment of children’s interactions with their pet dog. Children (9 to 11 years old, n = 99) completed questionnaires regarding relationships with pet dogs, parents, and friends. Half the children were observed interacting with their pet dog. Children and teachers reported children’s adjustment. Children who felt closer to their dogs were more securely attached to mothers and fathers and reported more positive qualities and less conflict with friends. Children with more secure attachments to mothers, and greater companionship with dogs, interacted more with their dogs. Parental attachment and friendship quality, but not the pet dog relationship, were related to child adjustment.     

Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance Influence Pet Choice and Pet-directed Behaviors

Attachment theory is a useful lens through which to examine both perceptions and selection of companion animals. Study 1 compared perceptions of dogs and cats, and found that dogs were perceived as having more positive relationship qualities and secure attachment-related characteristics, whereas cats were perceived as having more negative relationship qualities and avoidant attachment-related characteristics. In addition, people perceived relationships with dogs to involve less avoidance and less anxiety relative to relationships with people. In study 2, which built on the findings of study 1, attachment avoidance was negatively associated with wanting to own a pet, whereas attachment anxiety was positive associated with wanting to own a pet. These attachment dimensions were not associated with wanting to own a dog, but lower avoidance and higher anxiety were associated with wanting to own a cat. Study 3 was a longitudinal study of SPCA-type shelter visitors (510 participants, with 169 reporting a recent pet adoption). Lower attachment anxiety predicted recently adopting a dog rather than a cat, though neither anxiety nor avoidance predicted adopting a cat. Individuals who wanted a pet in order to facilitate human relationships were more likely to adopt a dog than a cat. Those high in attachment avoidance reported turning to their pet as a replacement for human companionship, and those high in attachment anxiety reported feeling more concern about their pets requiring more attention. Attachment anxiety and avoidance may influence the decision whether or not to adopt a pet, as well as the motivation underlying the adoption choice. Attachment also may influence the type of pet chosen (i.e., dog versus cat). In addition, attachment may influence the nature of the human–animal relationship, such as the time spent together, and the security felt regarding the relationship.     

The Development and Factor Structure of a Questionnaire Measure of the Strength of Attachment to Pet Dogs

ABSTRACT

A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.     

An Experience Sampling Approach to Investigating Associations between Pet Presence and Indicators of Psychological Wellbeing and Mood in Older Australians

ABSTRACT

In this study we examined associations between pet ownership and presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing in older Australians, using an innovative, experience sampling methodology and a community-living sample of 68 adults, including 41 pet owners, all aged over 65 years. In response to randomized prompts the participants provided information about their location, social companions, activities, and mood state six times daily for seven consecutive days. They also completed a number of surveys measuring various aspects of wellbeing. There were no significant differences in our outcome measures between pet owners and those who did not own at least one pet, and few of our pet owners reported engaging in pet-focused human– animal activities, such as walking their dog or playing with their cat. However, frequency of pet presence during activities of daily living was associated with, and statistically predictive of, several measures of wellbeing and mood. From our results we tentatively conclude that more frequent presence of a pet, particularly a dog, may be associated with greater psychological wellbeing in this cohort. More importantly, we confirm that the intensive experience sampling methodology provides a novel means of examining human–pet interactions, enabling a closer analysis of moment-by-moment pet presence than has been possible using alternative approaches.     

Pet owners' views of pet behavior problems and willingness to consult experts for assistance

Prior research has found that dog obedience training and the receipt of advice regarding companion animal (pet) behavior reduce the risk of nonhuman animal relinquishment to an animal shelter and increase human-companion animal interactions, but research also finds that only a minority of pet guardians participates in such activities. The researchers for this study asked 170 dog and cat guardians to assess the seriousness of common problem behaviors and how likely they were to seek help. The researchers also asked them to rate different methods of obtaining expert advice. The dog and cat guardians saw behaviors directly affecting humans as most severe; those involving the destruction of property were next in severity; and those affecting the animal more than the human were least severe. There were no significant differences in ratings by participants' gender or income. Participants indicated they were more likely to use free help options than fee-based services. The lack of a clear correlation between the seriousness of a behavior problem and likelihood of seeking help suggests that other factors may play a role in pet guardians' interest in obtaining expert advice.     

The Influence of Companion Animals on Owner Perception: Gender and Species Effects

ABSTRACT

There is some evidence that the presence of a companion animal influences perceptions of the psychological attributes of its owner. The present study investigated how these effects vary by pet species and owner gender. A sample of 542 students rated slides of a man or woman accompanied by a cat, a dog or alone using 36 adjectives. These adjectives were subsequently grouped into four clusters labelled ‘Nice’, ‘Nasty’, ‘Style’ and ‘Action’. Statistical analyses revealed that the female target person was rated as significantly nicer, more stylish and more active with the dog than with the cat. The male target person was rated as nicer, more stylish and more active with the cat than the dog. This pattern was contrary to that hypothesized, which was based on traditional gender and human-pet stereotypes. Discussion focuses on the changing nature of gender stereotypes and the resulting complexity of owner-pet perceptions.     

Dog Breeding in New Providence,The Bahamas,and Its Potential Impact on the Roaming Dog Population I: Planned and Accidental

This article reports the first known study on dog breeding in an Afro-Caribbean community. The study obtained the information on 517 matings through interviews with dog caregivers. Few litters (6.8%) from mongrels (potcakes) resulted from planned matings, whereas 66.5% of matings between purebred dogs were planned. Confinement of the female is often inadequate, and roaming dogs may have been responsible for 24.8% of the litters. The lack of confinement of potcakes has resulted in the perception that potcakes are “responsible” for the companion animal (pet) overpopulation problem; however, potcakes made up the minority (29.4%) of the breeding females. Until regulations concerning dog breeding are introduced, caregivers can be expected to continue exploiting their nonhuman animals to supplement their incomes from the sale of puppies. A consequence of unregulated breeding may also be inbred offspring of “purebred” dogs as few self-styled “professional” breeders appeared to use dogs who were not their own.     

Characterisation of gastric ghrelin cells in man and other mammals: studies in adult and fetal tissues

Ghrelin is a new gastric peptide involved in food intake control and growth hormone release. We aimed to assess its cell localisation in man during adult and fetal life and to clarify present interspecies inconsistencies of gastric endocrine cell types. A specific serum generated against amino acids 13-28 of ghrelin was tested on fetal and adult gastric mucosa and compared with ghrelin in situ hybridisation. Immunogold electron microscopy was performed on normal human, rat and dog adult stomach. Ghrelin cells were detected in developing gut, pancreas and lung from gestational week 10 and in adult human, rat and dog gastric mucosa. By immunogold electron microscopy, gastric ghrelin cells showed distinctive morphology and hormone reactivity in respect to histamine enterochromaffin-like, somatostatin D, glucagon A or serotonin enterochromaffin cells. Ghrelin cells were characterised by round, compact, electron-dense secretory granules of P/D(1) type in man (mean diameter 147+/-30 nm), A-like type in the rat (183+/-37 nm) and X type in the dog (273+/-49 nm). It is concluded that, ghrelin is produced by well-defined cell types, which in the past had been labelled differently in various mammals mostly because of the different size of their secretory granule. In man ghrelin cells develop during early fetal life.     

The Use of Positive Reinforcement in Training Zebra Sharks (Stegostoma fasciatum)

Few studies have examined how personality traits may be related to the amounts and types of attachments humans have toward companion animals (pets). In this study, 1,098 companion animal guardians (owners) completed a survey that included the Big Five Inventory, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale, and the Pet Attachment Questionnaire. Each participant chose whether he or she identified as a Cat Person, Dog Person, Both, or Neither. Results indicated that neuroticism, conscientiousness, choosing a dog as a favorite pet, and identifying as a Cat Person, Dog Person, or Both predicted affection for a pet. Conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness decreased avoidant attachment to pets, and neuroticism increased anxious attachment to pets. Both dogs and cats could benefit from pet owners who are conscientious, and there may be some benefits of neuroticism in pet owners. The findings of this study will advance understanding of the human–animal bond. As this understanding increases, measurements of human attachment and personality may be useful for the development of tools that could assist shelter employees and veterinarians in counseling people about pet ownership.     

犬、猫与人类心血管疾病的特点比较

随着我国小动物诊疗行业与国际兽医临床技术的接轨,国内的兽医学科向专科方向发展,小动物心血管疾病在老年动物呈现出越来越高发的迹象,临床兽医在心血管疾病的研究也越来越深入,也更多的借鉴了人类心脏病学的诊疗检查手段,通过将犬猫心血管疾病特点与人类相比较,发现两者之异同,希望能籍此指导犬猫心血管疾病诊疗,满足动物主人的需求,维护动物健康,缓解给动物主人所带来的焦虑,体现兽医在维护人类身心健康的作用。     

Attachment styles impact on pet visitation effectiveness

Abstract

This paper describes a field study on the effects of attachment styles on the subjective well-being of institutionalized older persons after participating in a pet visitation program. We compared how attachment style (i.e., secure, anxious ambivalent, dismissive avoidant, and fearful avoidant) moderated the impact of a dog visitation program in 52 elderly residents of an assisted-living facility. Controlling for pre-visitation mood, the results revealed that the secure style related to increases in positive mood after interacting with the dogs. The anxious ambivalent style related to increases in positive mood and decreases in ratings of depression. Most importantly, the fearful avoidant style related to increases in depression after interacting with the dogs. The results highlight the notion that not all participants benefit from taking part in pet visitation programs. Theoretically, this study presents preliminary evidence for the relevance of attachment styles in understanding human–pet interactions.     

Identification of cDNA encoding motilin related peptide/ghrelin precursor from dog fundus

A novel protein expressed by entero-endocrine cells of the mouse stomach was named prepromotilin Related Peptide (ppMTLRP) since it shares sequence similarities with the prepromotilin (Tomasetto et al.). The mouse ppMTLRP was found identical to the rat precursor of ghrelin (ppghrelin), an endogenous ligand specific for the Growth Hormone Secretagogue receptor identified from rat stomach (Kojima et al.). In the present study the cDNA encoding the dog counterpart of ppMTLRP/Ghrelin has been isolated and sequenced. The dog ppMTLRP/Ghrelin cDNA showed scores of respectively 80% and 75% homology with its human and mouse counterparts. By translation of the dog ppMTLRP/Ghrelin cDNA sequences, two ORFs could be deduced encoding either a 117 amino acid ppMTLRP/Ghrelin or the deleted Gln14 ppMTLRP/Ghrelin, as it was also known in mouse, rat and man. The dog ppMTLRP/Ghrelin shared 91% similarity and 78% identity, and 89% similarity and 78% identity with the human and mouse ppMTLRP/Ghrelin proteins respectively. The best score of homology was found in the MTLRP/Ghrelin sequence itself. Indeed the dog MTLRP/Ghrelin peptide shared 100% similarity and 93% identity, and 96% identity and similarity, with the human and mouse MTLRP/Ghrelin. Using Northern blot analysis to study dog ppMTLRP/Ghrelin gene expression on dog adult gut tissues, maximal expression level was found in the stomach fundus and corpus, and no expression could be detected in the stomach antrum nor in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon or liver. In conclusion, we have identified ppMTLRP/Ghrelin from dog, and found that it is highly conserved with man, mouse or rat. The expression pattern along the gastro-intestinal tract is similar to the expression pattern previously described in mouse.     

What's in it for the companion animal? Pet attachment and college students' behaviors toward pets

Research on the human-nonhuman animal bond has focused primarily on its advantages to the human. The purpose of this study is to investigate behaviors of caregivers (owners) of companion animals (pets) and to examine the relationship between such behaviors and scores on a pet attachment scale. Participants were 501 largely nontraditional (older, married, employed full-time) college students living with a pet dog or cat. The study categorized owner behaviors as essential, standard, enriched, or luxury care. Almost all participants reported engaging in essential care behaviors, with numbers declining from category to category. Pet attachment scores appeared related to standard and enriched care behaviors but not to essential care. Too few participants reported doing luxury care behaviors to link them to attachment. The results suggest that even pet owners reporting low attachment provide beneficial care and attention to their pets and that pet attachment may be of limited use when looking at the benefit of the human-animal bond to the companion animal.     

Children with pets do not show higher empathy: A challenge to current views

Abstract

A group of children (n=137) were surveyed with respect to pet ownership and pet preferences to explore the link between the human–animal bond and empathy. The most notable findings—and contrary to our predictions—were: (1) there was no difference in empathy (Bryan Empathy Index) between pet owners and non-owners; (2) there was no correlation between empathy and attachment to pets (Companion Animal Bonding Scale); and (3) higher empathy scores were not related to pet-preference indicators. A more fine-grained examination of the pet-owning group only revealed differences with respect to type of animal owned. Higher empathy was evident with dog ownership as opposed to other pet types. However, this needs to be tempered by the equally interesting observation that lower empathy was related to cat ownership. Regardless of how ownership groups are configured, there is consistent evidence that differentiates cat owners (lower empathy) from dog owners (higher empathy). When pet ownership and pet preference are combined to form new groupings, again, the cat effects and dog effects are evident. Implications extend to the need: (1) for future research on the nature of the human–animal bond; (2) to explore the relationship between personality and animal bonding; and (3) to refine the questions surrounding the animal-based links to empathy, as well as other related constructs such as prosocial behaviour, compassion, self-esteem, self-control, autonomy, affection, stress, responsibility, and perhaps even emotional intelligence, career paths and community service.     

Characterizing the Data in Online Companion-dog Obituaries to Assess Their Usefulness as a Source of Information about Human–Animal Bonds

Online pet obituary sites host hundreds of obituaries regarding the passing of companion animals. Often composed by the owner or primary caretaker of the animal, they are a potential source of data about human–animal bonds where there were strong positive human emotions surrounding the animal at point of death. The aim of the present study was to characterize on-line pet obituaries and to evaluate their usefulness as a source of information on the human–animal bond. One hundred and thirty full obituaries of dogs were studied. Where the role of the writer could be identified, the majority of obituary writers identified themselves as a female parental figure to the dog (34.6%); however, obituaries were also written by male parental figures (7.7%) and children (5.4%). Most obituaries (60%) fell within the 100-400 words length range. Obituaries were seen to express several key concepts. For instance, dogs were described as “child-like,” “part of the family,” showing “sympathy” and/or “gratitude” to the owner, and having a “sense of humor.” For their part, writers expressed “guilt” over the dog’s death, discussed a concept of the “afterlife” and noted an “instant connection” between themselves and the dog. A high proportion of the obituaries discussed the afterlife (51%) and indicated that the dog was considered part of the family (49%). There were some significant associations between concept usage within obituaries. Dogs that were described as “child-like” were more often perceived to be in an “afterlife” and to have had an “instant connection” with obituary writers (x² = 38.08, p < 0.001). We conclude that online pet obituaries can be a valuable source of information on human feelings surrounding a companion animal death.     

Pet Ownership,Type of Pet and Socio-Emotional Development of School Children

ABSTRACT

The current study was designed to compare the socio-emotional characteristics of school children pet owners and children without pets and to examine whether the type of pet is a variable which can differentiate the socio-emotional development of their owners. The subjects, 425 girls and 401 boys, were students of fourth (n=265), sixth (n=295) and eighth (n=266) grade of elementary schools from the metropolitan area of Zagreb, Croatia. Socio-emotional variables assessed in the study were: child attachment to pet, child prosocial orientation, empathy, loneliness, perception of family climate and social anxiety. The data showed that 54.4% of children in the sample were pet owners (26.2% of children in the study had a dog, 9.2% had a cat, and 19.0% had some other pet). In order to answer the main research question, several analyses of variance (gender by grade by pet ownership) were computed for each criterion of socio-emotional development. Significant main effects were obtained for empathy, prosocial orientation and pet attachment, with dog owners being more empathic and prosocially oriented than non-owners, and dog owners and cat owners being more attached to their pets than owners of other kinds of pets. Additional analyses of variance were computed in order to examine the role of attachment in the socio-emotional functioning of the children. Subjects were divided in three sub-groups: non-owners, lower then average attached owners, and higher than average attached owners. Children who scored higher than average on the attachment to pets scale showed significantly higher scores on the empathy and prosocial orientation scales than non-owners and children who scored lower than average on the attachment to pets scale. It was also found that children with higher levels of attachment to pets rated their family climate significantly better than children who had lower attachment to pets.     

Influence of pet ownership on opinions towards the use of animals in biomedical research

Abstract

The present study investigated the relationship between pet ownership and opinions on the use of animals in medical research. A questionnaire was answered by 484 schoolteacher students and 156 pre-school teacher students from Uppsala University, Sweden. Animal use was found to be of significant importance for developing treatments for human disease by 59 percent of respondents, but 15 percent did not agree. Forty-four percent thought that it was morally acceptable to use animals in biomedical research, while 25 percent did not. A significantly higher proportion of those who reported experience in the use of animals in research from university teaching morally accepted and understood the importance of using animals in biomedical research, compared with students without this background. Fifty-eight percent of the students were pet owners and the most common species owned were the cat and the dog. A lower proportion of pet owners (39%) found it acceptable to use pet species in biomedical research than did non-pet owners (52%).     

The epidemiology of Toxocara canis

Bred as hunter, companion and pet, the dog has a long and honourable association with man. Yet the domestic dog can host a wide range of parasites - many of which can also infect humans. One of these, the ascarid nematode Toxocara canis (Fig. 1), is of particular interest because of retinal damage that may result from larvae becoming trapped in the eye. At the Hospital for Tropical Diseases in London, about 20-30 patients with toxocariasis are treated annually. Widespread fouling of public parks, playgrounds and pedestrian areas with dog faeces - especially in large cities - is well -recognized as one of the main sources of Toxocara infection. Yet as Stephen Gillespie discusses here, epidemiological indicators vary widely and the risk of infection is often treated too lightly.