组织工程的一般考虑

组织工程的最终目标是通过体外增减活细胞与其胞外环境相互作用而发育成具胡生物活性的组织或器官替代物,替换、修复组织或器官,或强化其生物学功能。本文主要讨论细胞移植和组织重建的影响因素和可能的方法。     

组织工程研究的进展

组织工程从提出到现在不过10年的历史,但在世界范围内引起高度重视,许多国家已将它列为“经济的新增长点”,投入了相当的人力和财力进行研究,成果斐然.我国也有相关的研究课题开始运行.第二届组织工程学会于1998年在美国召开,会上发表了组织工程的最新研究成果.作为抛砖引玉,总结了有关组织工程研究的进展,并提出保证工程组织的功能化是值得深入研究的问题.     

组织工程皮肤发展现状

组织工程皮肤从概念提出至今技术发展迅速.本文对现有的组织工程皮肤进展展开论述,组织工程皮肤主要分3大类:由种子细胞和支架材料体外三维构建培养的组织工程皮肤、由细胞组成的组织工程化皮肤和由支架材料构成的组织工程化皮肤,根据其结构组成、形态或来源又分成2~3种,每种选1~3个代表具体描述.然后针对现有组织工程存在的再生修复性能不足、细胞来源受限、生产运输成本过高等技术问题进行分析讨论,同时就目前国家对该领域的管理办法进行了讨论和建议,并提出了组织工程皮肤的一些非移植性扩展应用.通过对组织工程皮肤领域技术成果的总结、技术问题与现有研究热点的讨论和未来前景的分析,希望能更好地促进该领域发展.     

Design and characterization of a modified T‐flask bioreactor for continuous monitoring of engineered tissue stiffness

Controlling environmental conditions, such as mechanical stimuli, is critical for directing cells into functional tissue. This study reports on the development of a bioreactor capable of controlling the mechanical environment and continuously measuring force‐displacement in engineered tissue. The bioreactor was built from off the shelf components, modified off the shelf components, and easily reproducible custom built parts to facilitate ease of setup, reproducibility and experimental flexibility. A T‐flask was modified to allow for four tissue samples, mechanical actuation via a LabView controlled stepper motor and transduction of force from inside the T‐flask to an external sensor. In vitro bench top testing with instrumentation springs and tissue culture experiments were performed to validate system performance. Force sensors were highly linear (R² > 0.998) and able to maintain force readings for extended periods of time. Tissue culture experiments involved cyclic loading of polyurethane scaffolds seeded with and without (control) human foreskin fibroblasts for 8 h/day for 14 days. After supplementation with TGF‐β, tissue constructs showed an increase in stiffness between consecutive days and from the acellular controls. These experiments confirmed the ability of the bioreactor to distinguish experimental groups and monitor tissue stiffness during tissue development. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2010     

蛛丝蛋白的研究进展及应用前景

蛛丝蛋白是一种很特殊的纤维蛋白。由丙氨酸组成的β-折叠和富含脯氨酸的α-螺旋,及其紧密堆砌的二级结构使之成为一种半结晶状态的分子弹簧结构,决定了蛛丝具有强度高,韧性大等一些重要特点。对其蛋白质序列的组成与结构人们已基本研究清楚;蛛丝蛋白基因部分序列的克隆已取得成功,在基因表达方面也取得了一些进展。虽然由于蛛丝蛋白基因序列的高重复性、不稳定性和较长的基因序列,使得对蛛丝蛋白的全基因克隆变得困难重重,但是蛛丝蛋白独特的结构和性质,使其在医学领域尤其是组织工程方面有着诱人的前景 。     

人造生物皮肤

由活细胞和生物相容性材料制成的人造生物皮肤是第一种获得ＦＤＡ批准的组织工程产品,它们在治疗严重烧伤病人和顽固性溃疡病人具有很好的疗效。本综述了人造生物皮肤的特点、制备方法和作用机理,并介绍了一些组织工程皮肤产品。     

几丁聚糖在组织工程中的应用

支架材料作为组织工程的生物学植入替代物,对细胞移植与引导新组织生长有重要的作用。几丁聚糖可制成无毒性,无刺激性,生物相容性和生物可降解性良好的生物医用材料,在人工皮肤,骨修复材料,手术缝线等方面已广泛应用。本文分析了纯几丁聚糖支架结构和它与其他天然或合成材料复合的支架结构的物理、化学性质及其独特的生物学功能,同时还进一步介绍了其应用的范例并探讨了发展前景。     

组织器官三维构建及原位组织工程概念——组织工程连载之四

组织器官三维构建就是把种子细胞和支架材料结合而获得设计的组织或器官,属于组织工程的核心内容,也最能体现组织工程的技术水平,如血管、气管的构建。由于传统组织工程存在缺陷,Shimizu于1998年首先提出了原位组织工程的概念,它是运用组织工程学基本原理,通过各种方法诱导移植的外源性的种子细胞或内源性的缺损组织局部细胞发生迁移、增殖、分化形成新生组织修复缺损。原位组织工程最大的特点是不依赖体外的细胞培养装置--生物反应器。原位组织工程是传统离体组织工程的有益补充。离体组织工程仍具有广阔的发展前景。     

Osteochondral tissue coculture: An in vitro and in silico approach

Osteochondral tissue engineering aims to regenerate functional tissue-mimicking physiological properties of injured cartilage and its subchondral bone. Given the distinct structural and biochemical difference between bone and cartilage, bilayered scaffolds, and bioreactors are commonly employed. We present an osteochondral culture system which cocultured ATDC5 and MC3T3-E1 cells on an additive manufactured bilayered scaffold in a dual-chamber perfusion bioreactor. Also, finite element models (FEM) based on the microcomputed tomography image of the manufactured scaffold as well as on the computer-aided design (CAD) were constructed; the microenvironment inside the two FEM was studied and compared. In vitro results showed that the coculture system supported osteochondral tissue growth in terms of cell viability, proliferation, distribution, and attachment. In silico results showed that the CAD and the actual manufactured scaffold had significant differences in the flow velocity, differentiation media mixing in the bioreactor and fluid-induced shear stress experienced by the cells. This system was shown to have the desired microenvironment for osteochondral tissue engineering and it can potentially be used as an inexpensive tool for testing newly developed pharmaceutical products for osteochondral defects.     

Computational simulation modelling of bioreactor configurations for regenerating human bladder

The objective of this study was to investigate a bioreactor suitable for human bladder regeneration. Simulations were performed using the computational fluid dynamic tools. The thickness of the bladder scaffold was 3 mm, similar to the human bladder, and overall hold-up volume within the spherical shape scaffold was 755 ml. All simulations were performed using (i) Brinkman equation on porous regions using the properties of 1% chitosan–1% gelatin structures, (ii) Michaelis–Menten type rate law nutrient consumption for smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and (iii) Mackie–Meares relationship for determining effective diffusivities. Steady state simulations were performed using flow rates from 0.5 to 5 ml/min. Two different inlet shapes: (i) straight entry at the centre (Design 1) and (ii) entry with an expansion (Design 2) were simulated to evaluate shear stress distribution. Also, mimicking bladder shape of two inlets (Design 3) was tested. Design 2 provided the uniform shear stress at the inlet and nutrient distribution, which was further investigated for the effect of scaffold locations within the reactor: (i) attached with a 3-mm open channel (Design 2-A), (ii) flow through with no open channel (Design 2-B) and (iii) porous structure suspended in the middle with 1.5-mm open channel on either side (Design 2-C). In Design 2-A and 2-C, fluid flow occurred by diffusion dominant mechanisms. Furthermore, the designed bioreactor is suitable for increased cell density of SMCs. These results showed that increasing the flow rate is necessary due to the decreased permeability at cell densities similar to the human bladder.     

Polymer‐based microparticles in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

Different types of biomaterials, processed into different shapes, have been proposed as temporary support for cells in tissue engineering (TE) strategies. The manufacturing methods used in the production of particles in drug delivery strategies have been adapted for the development of microparticles in the fields of TE and regenerative medicine (RM). Microparticles have been applied as building blocks and matrices for the delivery of soluble factors, aiming for the construction of TE scaffolds, either by fusion giving rise to porous scaffolds or as injectable systems for in situ scaffold formation, avoiding complicated surgery procedures. More recently, organ printing strategies have been developed by the fusion of hydrogel particles with encapsulated cells, aiming the production of organs in in vitro conditions. Mesoscale self‐assembly of hydrogel microblocks and the use of leachable particles in three‐dimensional (3D) layer‐by‐layer (LbL) techniques have been suggested as well in recent works. Along with innovative applications, new perspectives are open for the use of these versatile structures, and different directions can still be followed to use all the potential that such systems can bring. This review focuses on polymeric microparticle processing techniques and overviews several examples and general concepts related to the use of these systems in TE and RE applications. The use of materials in the development of microparticles from research to clinical applications is also discussed. © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2011     

聚羟基丁酸己酸酯及其在组织工程中的应用

绍了羟基丁酸酯-羟基己酸酯共聚物的降解性、亲水性、力学性能、表面形态,改性研究、细胞相容性、降解产物的毒性等性能,并对这种材料在组织工程中的应用现状作了阐述,提出了需要改进研究的方向,指出这种微生物来源的新型生物医药材料在组织工程的应用中将具有极大的潜力。     

体外构建组织工程化软骨的初步研究

观察用藻酸钠凝胶在体外长期培养软骨细胞的情况,为求进一步用藻酸钠凝胶在体外构建组织工程化软骨提供初步研究.将传代培养的、细胞终浓度为1×107/mL的软骨细胞复合藻酸钠凝胶,注入圆柱形模具中,将模具分别浸入100、200、300 mmol/L的固化剂氯化钙溶液中,固化15 min使其成形,于体外培养2、4、6周后,行HE染色、阿尔新蓝染色,了解软骨细胞的生长情况.2、4、6周时软骨细胞与藻酸钙凝胶复合良好并能在其中保持活性及分裂能力,且在6周时出现类软骨变化.因此藻酸钠凝胶是可用于体外构建组织工程化软骨的生物材料.     

Development of multilayered cell‐hydrogel composites using an acoustic focusing technique

Multilayered composites, composed of mammalian cells arranged in a hydrogel, have been prepared using an acoustic focusing technique. Acoustic focusing is a simple, nonchemical technique that allows for the fast arrangement of cells in matrices where the control of cell geometry is beneficial. Breast cancer cells (MDA‐MB231) were dispersed in a 30 wt % solution of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) of molecular weight 400 at a density of 5 × 10⁶ cells/mL of PEGDA solution. An ultrasonic field was used to organize the cells before polymerization of PEGDA. Disk‐shaped hydrogel composites, typically 1 cm in diameter and 2‐mm thick were prepared based on a PEGDA solution volume of 130 μL. At an acoustic frequency of 2.32 MHz, composites having cells positioned within concentric cylindrical shells interspersed with zones of cell‐free hydrogel were produced. The cells were located in annuli approximately 80‐μm thick and about 300 μm apart. The structure and viability of the cells within these constructs were studied using a fluorescent LIVE/DEAD assay. The viability of the cells was on the order of 50%. For the conditions used in this study, cell death was primarily attributed to exposure of cells to the PEGDA solution prior to polymerization, rather than adverse effects of polymerization or the sound field itself. © 2009 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2010     

不同浓度藻酸钙复合软骨细胞体外培养的实验研究

为探寻复合软骨细胞生长的最佳藻酸钙浓度,将传代培养的、细胞终浓度为1×107/mL的软骨细胞复合藻酸钠凝胶,然后滴入浓度分别为100、200、300、400、500mmol/L的氯化钙溶液中,固化15min形成藻酸钙凝珠,于体外培养7d后,行HE染色及Masson’s三色染色,结果显示软骨细胞与固化剂氯化钙浓度为100、200、300mmol/L的藻酸钙凝胶复合良好并能在其中保持活性及分裂能力;而在氯化钙浓度为400mmol/L和500mmol/L的藻酸钙凝胶中,软骨细胞的活性及分裂能力明显下降.因此固化剂氯化钙的浓度可以提高到300mmol/L,该浓度不仅对软骨细胞的生长无影响,而且能适当提高藻酸钙凝胶的机械强度,可以作为一种较理想的软骨组织工程支架材料.     

骨组织工程血管化的研究进展

血管化是组织工程骨成活的关键,组织工程骨的血管化过程与生理情况下的血管发生相似,但又有其独特性,并受多种因素影响。基于对组织工程骨血管化过程的认识,研究者通过联合细胞培养、促血管化生长因子、显微外科等方法重建血运。本文综述了当前骨组织工程的血管化研究进展。     

Subzero Osmotic Characteristics of Intact and Disaggregated Hepatocyte Spheroids

This study has been conducted to examine basic transport characteristics of pig hepatocytes cultured as spheroids for use in a bioartificial liver. Static osmotic experiments were conducted by subjecting hepatocyte spheroids in solutions of increasing sucrose concentrations. A Boyle-van't Hoff plot was used to extrapolate an osmotically inactive volume, V(b), of 0.60, which is unusually high and might not represent the inactive volume of the individual cells. The spheroids were disaggregated and low-temperature cryomicroscopy experiments performed to examine the transport and intracellular ice formation (IIF) characteristics. A hydraulic permeability, L(pg), of 7.6 x 10(15) m(3)/Ns and an activation energy, E(lp), of 82 kJ/mol was determined for the individual cells. The kinetic (Omega(o)) and thermodynamic (kappa(o)) coefficients for IIF were determined to be 5.9 x 10(8) m(-2) s(-1) and 3.0 x 10(9) K(5), respectively. These results infer a decrease in the temperature range over which IIF is observed compared to freshly isolated pig hepatocytes. The technique of freeze substitution was used to examine the structure inside the spheroid during freezing. At a low cooling rate of 1 degrees C/min, increasing amounts of intercellular ice formed between the cells. At a higher cooling rate of 100 degrees C/min small intracellular ice crystals formed. This study shows the location of ice in a freezing hepatocyte spheroid and confirms that the cells cultured as spheroids do not transport water in the same manner as isolated cells.     

Embryonic wound healing: A primer for engineering novel therapies for tissue repair

Scar is the default tissue repair used by the body in response to most injuries–a response that occurs in wounds ranging in seriousness from minor skin cuts to complete severance of the spinal cord. By contrast, before the third trimester of pregnancy embryonic mammals tend to heal without scarring due to a variety of mechanisms and factors that are uniquely in operation during development in utero. The goal of tissue engineering is to develop safe and clinically effective biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function in patients. This review provides a comparative overview of wound healing during development and maturation and seeks to provide a perspective on just how much the embryo may be able teach us in the engineering of new therapies for tissue repair. Birth Defects Research (Part C) 96:258–270, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

组织工程与生物材料

介绍了组织工程的原理、研究现状,以及相关生物材料的基本概念和生物材料的发展概况。指出目前组织工程的研究为生物材料提供了极大的发展机会,认为可降解生物材料是组织工程用支架材料的研究重点,未来组织工程相关生物材料的发展方向是仿生化和智能化,组织工程学的发展将会促进材料的发展．并将由此产生巨大的社会效益和经济效益。