Formative fieldwork: the age of the sixth form course

Two hundred and fifty-eight thousand A-level students have attended one-week field courses at Field Studies Council Residential Centres during the past 30 years. Biology courses have had a strongly ecological basis throughout, with an emphasis on the study of the whole environment. Only in recent years have financial constraints forced the organization to restructure academically-desirable programmes in favour of overtly syllabus-orientated curricula. There have, however, been but trivial changes in the pattern of work. The emphasis of the field course is based firmly on the students' own field and laboratory observations. Staff are facilitators not dictators.     

The Black farmer and land in south-central Alabama: Strategies to preserve a scarce resource

Black-American culture has been tied to the land and agriculture for over 300 years. However, Blacks have had limited access to land ownership due to a historic relationship with a dominant White society based on discrimination. This major resource constraint prevented the full participation of the Black farmer in traditional commercial agriculture. Research conducted in the Black Belt Region of Alabama is used to examine the importance of land, particularly the multigenerational ownership of land, on current farm participation and landholdings. Strategies employed by farmers to pass this scarce resource to succeeding generations are also examined.     

Australian land snails: a review of ecological research and conservation approaches

Land snails are an important yet often neglected component of Australia's biological diversity. Despite high levels of diversity within this group and the identification of many narrow range endemic species as being of conservation concern, there have been few detailed studies that document the ecology and conservation requirements of the group. A range of threats has been suggested, yet relatively few have been rigorously assessed. Whilst factors such as land clearing are readily apparent and have resulted in extinctions, other threats such as climate change are not well understood. This paper reviews studies conducted on terrestrial molluscs in Australia and highlights the need for further targeted ecological research, given the likely level of on-going threats. We urge researchers to apply rigorous approaches to data collection that will enable a deeper understanding of the factors governing distribution and abundance. Approaches used in other areas of conservation biology offer considerable scope for application to land snails and for the development of appropriate conservation strategies.     

Hydrology and history: land use changes and ecological responses in an urban wetland

The impacts of changing land use on hydrology and dominant plant species from 1850–1990 were investigated in a palustrine wetland in southern Wisconsin, USA. Aerial photographs, historic maps and water levels of the area were used to determine changes in land use, wetland vegetation, and groundwater and surface flows over time. Piezometers and water table wells were monitored weekly for two years. Vegetation was quantified in four one-square meter quadrats at each water level measurement site. Linear regression models and multivariate ordinations were used to relate wetland plant species to hydrologic, chemical and spatial variables. The current hydrologic budget of the wetland was dominated by precipitation and evapotranspiration, although overland flow into the wetland from the subwatershed has increased twenty-fold since 1850. Water level stabilization in the adjacent Yahara River, creek channelization, and groundwater pumping have decreased inputs of groundwater and spring-fed surface water, and increased retention of precipitation. Typha spp. and Phalaris arundinacea L. have increased in the wetland, while Carex spp. have decreased. Phalaris arundinacea was found most often in the driest sites, and the sites with the greatest range of water levels. Typha spp. dominated in several hydrologic settings, indicating that water depth was not the only factor controlling its distribution. The distributions of dominant plant species in the wetland were most closely correlated with site elevation and average water levels, with some weaker correlations with vertical groundwater inflows and specific conductance.     

The Field Studies Council: how it all began

The Field Studies Council (or the Council for the Promotion of Field Studies as it was originally called) had its beginnings in the need for residential training in field studies directed by a London County Council schools inspector, Francis Butler. It was founded at a meeting held in the British Museum (Natural History) on 10 September 1943; Sir Arthur Tansley was the first President and Sir Maurice Yonge the first Chairman. The first centres were managed on a do-your-best basis when food was rationed and building materials almost unobtainable by a remarkable generation of Wardens, chronically starved of funds. The excitement and vision of the early days kept the Council alive, but its survival was repeatedly in doubt for the first decade of its existence.     

Eco-efficient approaches to land management: a case for increased integration of crop and animal production systems

Eco-efficiency is concerned with the efficient and sustainable use of resources in farm production and land management. It can be increased either by altering the management of individual crop and livestock enterprises or by altering the land-use system. This paper concentrates on the effects of crop sequence and rotation on soil fertility and nutrient use efficiency. The potential importance of mixed farming involving both crops and livestock is stressed, particularly when the systems incorporate biological nitrogen fixation and manure recycling. There is, however, little evidence that the trend in developed countries to farm-level specialization is being reduced. In some circumstances legislation to restrict diffuse pollution may provide incentives for more diverse eco-efficient farming and in other circumstances price premia for produce from eco-efficient systems, such as organic farming, and subsidies for the provision of environmental services may provide economic incentives for the adoption of such systems. However, change is likely to be most rapid where the present systems lead to obvious reductions in the productive potential of the land, such as in areas experiencing salinization. In other situations, there is promise that eco-efficiency could be increased on an area-wide basis by the establishment of linkages between farms of contrasting type, particularly between specialist crop and livestock farms, with contracts for the transfer of manures and, to a lesser extent, feeds.     

Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies

Biodiversity conservation requires prioritization of areas for in situ conservation. In that perspective, the present study documents the global diversity of a component of the soil macrofauna, the land planarians, and concerns an exploratory analysis of their possible role as indicators of biodiversity. Diversity is described by three quantitative methods: (1) hotspots of species richness, selecting areas richest in species, (2) hotspots of range-size rarity, identifying areas richest in narrowly endemic species, and (3) complementarity, prioritizing areas according to their greatest combined species richness. The biodiversity measures of species richness and range-size rarity show a great correspondence in the identification of hotspots of diversity; both measures identify the following seven areas as the most biodiverse for land planarians: Sao Paulo, Florianopolis, western Java, Tasmania, Sri Lanka, North Island/New Zealand, and Sydney. It is discussed to what extent the results for the land planarians correspond with those obtained in other studies that assessed biodiversity hotspots for taxa on a global scale. It is noteworthy that land planarians identify a few global hotspots of diversity that generally do not feature, or only have low rankings, in other studies: New Zealand, southeastern Australia, and Tasmania.     

Towards sustainable land use: identifying and managing the conflicts between human activities and biodiversity conservation in Europe

Conflicts between biodiversity conservation and human activities are becoming increasingly apparent in all European landscapes. The intensification of agricultural and silvicultural practices, land abandonment and other land uses such as recreation and hunting are all potential threats to biodiversity that can lead to conflicts between stakeholder livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. To address the global decline in biodiversity there is, therefore, a need to identify the drivers responsible for conflicts between human activities and the conservation of European biodiversity and to promote the management of these conflicts. Here, the drivers of biodiversity conflicts are analysed in a European context for five habitat types: agricultural landscapes, forests, grasslands, uplands and freshwater habitats. A multi- disciplinary approach to conflict management is described, with active stakeholder involvement at every stage of conflict identification and management as well as a range of other approaches including stakeholder dialogue and education, consumer education, improvement of political and legislative frameworks, financial incentives, and planning infrastructure.     

The land use history (1278–1990) of a mixed hardwood forest in western Belgium and its relationship with chemical soil characteristics

Aim During the last decades, an increasing number of studies have stressed the importance of historical human influence on the ecology of forests and on the characteristics of forest soils. Therefore, the objectives of this study are (1) the quantification of the land use history of Ename Wood from 1278 to 1990 and (2) to find out whether the former land use of the forest has long-lasting effects on present-day chemical soil properties. Location The 62-ha present-day Ename Wood is situated in western Belgium and is the remainder of the 145-ha historical Ename Wood. Methods We disposed of eighteen land-use maps for the period between 1278 and 1990 which were digitized using a geographic information system (GIS). Transition between the different land uses and Shannon–Wiener diversity indices were calculated to quantify the history of changing land use. Mixed soil samples were taken in lots delimited on the basis of the historical data. Next, the soil properties were combined with the land-use variables using redundancy analysis and ANOVA . Results The quantification of the land use changes showed that the present Ename Wood is the result of several forest regression and progression phases, with a complete clearance in the nineteenth century. Diversity in land use was maximal between the fourteenth and the sixteenth century due a variety of transitional forms between forest and pasture. A positive correlation between the duration of arable land use since the 19th century clearance and soil pH, calcium and phosphate content was observed and a negative correlation was found with the carbon content, the total nitrogen content and the C:N ratio. These correlations are probably caused by a combination of acidification processes and the accumulation of organic matter under forest in combination with manuring practices in the twentieth century. Present-day forest lots which have been pastured for some time between 1278 and nineteenth-century clearance still had a significantly lower pH and degree of base saturation, which is probably caused by the export of nutrient rich plant material at that time. Discussion and conclusions The results demonstrate that the developed methodology is successful and confirm that historical land use, even in the distant past, can still influence present-day soil characteristics. For this reason, long-term historical land use should always be considered in forest ecological research.     

Multifunctional use of a natural resource on farmland: wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) management and the conservation of farmland passerines

Current rural development policy encourages farmers to adopt multifunctional use of farmland. Non-agricultural resources such as wildlife provide a focus for recreational activities such as shooting and bird watching. This paper assesses the potential contribution of wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) management for shooting to the conservation of farmland passerines. Bird numbers were monitored over a 7-year period on farmland in Leicestershire (England), in relation to the introduction of a game management system. Passerines were used as the indicator group as they are an official quality of life indicator, and include species that are the subject of government biodiversity action plans. Following introduction of the game management package, there was little change in species diversity at the farm scale, but species experiencing population declines nationally showed significant increases in numbers. The management of wild pheasants for shooting may therefore have considerable potential for the conservation of nationally declining farmland birds and for recreational activities such as bird watching.     

Plant establishment and invasions: an increase in a seed disperser combined with land abandonment causes an invasion of the non-native walnut in Europe

Successful invasive species often are established for a long time period before increasing exponentially in abundance. This lag phase is one of the least understood phenomena of biological invasions. Plant invasions depend on three factors: a seed source, suitable habitat and a seed disperser. The non-native walnut, Juglans regia, has been planted for centuries in Central Europe but, until recently, has not spread beyond planted areas. However, in the past 20 years, we have observed a rapid increase in walnut abundance, specifically in abandoned agricultural fields. The dominant walnut disperser is the rook, Corvus frugilegus. During the past 50 years, rooks have increased in abundance and now commonly inhabit human settlements, where walnut trees are planted. Central Europe has, in the past few decades, experienced large-scale land abandonment. Walnut seeds dispersed into ploughed fields do not survive, but when cached into ploughed and then abandoned fields, they successfully establish. Rooks preferentially cache seeds in ploughed fields. Thus, land-use change combined with disperser changes can cause rapid increase of a non-native species, allowing it to become invasive. This may have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem. Thus, species that are non-native and not invasive can become invasive as habitats and dispersers change.     

BioPrEP – a regional, process-based approach for assessment of land with high conservation value for Bush Heritage Australia

Summary  A framework is presented for terrestrial conservation assessment that has been developed for Bush Heritage, an Australian non-profit organisation that manages land of outstanding conservation value through acquisition or working in partnership with other landowners. The framework is called Biodiversity Prediction using Ecological Processes and comprises seven conservation goals, with a set of candidate criteria and indicators for each goal. Particular emphasis is given to criteria that relate to habitat quality in addition to the more conventional focus on land quantity. The MCAS-S graphic user interface is used to help analyse the indicators and visualise the results in a transparent way that assists the decision-making process. The interface also allows indicators to be weighted differently, which among other things, allows analyses to reflect inter-regional differences in what represents high quality land. The framework was tested in a case study region (the Woodland region of south-eastern Australia), and the results reveal land that is potentially a priority for conservation investments. While the framework and case study results are indicative, and further analyses are required before they can be considered operational, the approach has potential application to other organisations in the private conservation sector.     

Translocation of carnivores as a method for managing problem animals: a review

Translocation of individual carnivores has been a standard management tool for decades in North America and southern Africa in response to livestock depredation and other conflict behaviours. As carnivore populations across Europe begin to increase it is expected that management problems will also increase. Before translocation becomes established as a management tool in Europe its success needs to be reviewed. In general, there has been very little follow-up of translocated animals. Almost no data exist on the subsequent levels of damage after translocation. Large carnivores have shown a consistent ability to return to the site of capture over distances of up to 400 km. Even those individuals that do not succeed in returning home roam over very large distances, best measured in units of hundreds of kilometres. Very few individuals remain at the release sites. Survival of translocated animals has occasionally been shown to be poor, often as a result of the large movements. In general, there needs to be a large area (hundreds or thousands of square kilometres) without conflict potential where the individuals can be released for the strategy to work. When such areas are not available, management efforts should concentrate on reducing conflict potential, or, where this is not practical, lethal control. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The quest for a unified view of bacterial land colonization

Exploring molecular mechanisms underlying bacterial water-to-land transition represents a critical start toward a better understanding of the functioning and stability of the terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we perform comprehensive analyses based on a large variety of bacteria by integrating taxonomic, phylogenetic and metagenomic data, in the quest for a unified view that elucidates genomic, evolutionary and ecological dynamics of the marine progenitors in adapting to nonaquatic environments. We hypothesize that bacterial land colonization is dominated by a single-gene sweep, that is, the emergence of dnaE2 derived from an early duplication event of the primordial dnaE, followed by a series of niche-specific genomic adaptations, including GC content increase, intensive horizontal gene transfer and constant genome expansion. In addition, early bacterial radiation may be stimulated by an explosion of land-borne hosts (for example, plants and animals) after initial land colonization events.     

The effects of information in a resource management problem: A social trap analog

A resource management simulation was devised in which players could harvest points for individual short-term gain, causing the premature destruction of the resource pool, or they could curb their own individual harvesting to preserve the pool for a longer overall supply. Although the first strategy was explained to be self-defeating, most groups opted for it, as they did even when an optimal harvesting strategy was provided that would avoid pool destruction. Groups whose members were allowed to communicate generally made better resource managers and achieved larger individual harvests.     

Radiation of the land snail genus Sagda (Pulmonata: Sagdidae): comparative morphology, biogeography and ecology of the species of north-central Jamaica

The radiation of the endemic Jamaican land snail genus Sagda is examined through analysis of the comparative shell morphology, anatomy, ecology and biogeography of the four species inhabiting north-central Jamaica: S. centralis sp. nov. , S. spei, S. bondi and S. montegoensis. The species are all rather similar in their morphology and ecology. The shells show some differences in the presence or absence of internal lamellae, the position of the lamellae, the form of the depression in the centre of the base, the regularity of sculpture (low ribs) and the pattern of microsculpture. Slight differences in the form of the radular teeth are found between some species. The structure of the secondary ureter is peculiar: in all species it is open shortly behind the mantle collar, then branches into two closed tubes which open separately on the outside of the mantle collar. Despite its great complexity, the reproductive system is rather uniform among species; differences are seen in the number of pockets that form spines on the spermatophore. The complex, three-branched spermatophore is formed within the entire epiphallar branch of the penis, whereas the appendicular branch apparently assumes the copulatory function. When inactive, all species are found associated with rocks or, less commonly, among leaf litter. Activity occurs primarily at night and mostly on leaf litter rather than rocks. The snails eat dead plant material, including a variety of plant species. All species (with the possible exception of S. montegoensis) are ovoviviparous. They overlap broadly in the range of climates occupied. The geographic ranges of the four species are overlapping, although Sagda bondi has a parapatric distribution in relation to the western species S. grandis. Fossil and subfossil evidence shows that shifts in the ranges of the species have occurred in the late Quaternary; Pleistocene-Holocene environmental changes, habitat destruction by man, and possibly other environmental changes during historical times are probably involved. Radiations of other land snail groups on tropical islands have generally produced greater morphological and ecological differentiation than in Sagda. Allopatric or parapatric species distributions appear to be more common in other land snail radiations.     

Clear and present danger: balancing the land management issues of today with the eternal challenge of climate change

Summary Management of natural ecosystems in Australian landscapes is fraught with difficulties and challenges. While unfavourable climate change is viewed of as an overwhelming critical factor, government and nongovernment groups faced with conserving biodiversity and ecological processes must continue to focus on already well‐advanced present‐day threats that erode the resilience of species to environmental perturbations and change. The most notable of these are posed by land clearing, introduced pests, weeds and inappropriate fire regimes. There are many positive examples of the biodiversity gains that can be made from reconnecting remnant vegetation, intensive and extensive pest and weed control, and re‐adjusting fire regimes. When such pressures are alleviated, native species sometimes display an innate ability to recover. This gives hope that natural systems can be both resurrected and maintained for a range of functions, including providing sufficient suitable habitat to support the movement of component species in response to climate change. Achieving success in managing natural areas over the long term may be further assisted by looking outside the box for funding sources. Monitoring the outcome of land management activities is a key to understanding what is being achieved and should be encouraged wherever possible.