ABCB1 and ABCB19 auxin transporters have synergistic effects on early and late Arabidopsis anther development

Arabidopsis abcb1 abcb19 double mutants defective in the auxin transporters ABCB1/PGP1 and ABCB19/PGP19 are altered in stamen elongation, anther dehiscence and pollen maturation. To assess the contribution of these transporters to stamen development we performed phenotypic, histological analyses, and in situ hybridizations on abcb1 and abcb19 single mutant fl owers. We found that pollen maturation and anther dehiscence are precocious in the abcb1 but not in the abcb19 mutant. Accordingly, endothecium ligni fication is altered only in abcb1 anthers. Both abcb1 and abcb1 abcb19 stamens also show altered early development, with asynchronous anther locules and a multilayer tapetum. DAPI staining showed that the timing of meiosis is asynchronous in abcb1 abcb19 anther locules, while only a small percentage of pollen grains are nonviable according to Alexander's staining. In agreement, TAM(TARDY ASYNCHRONOUS MEIOSIS), as well as BAM2(BARELY ANY MERISTEM)—involved in tapetal cell development—are overexpressed in abcb1 abcb19 young fl ower buds. Corre spondingly, ABCB1 and ABCB19 mRNA localization supports the observed phenotypes of abcb1 and abcb1 abcb19 mutant anthers. In conclusion, we provide evidence that auxin transport plays a signi ficant role both in early and late stamen development: ABCB1 plays a major role during anther development, while ABCB19 has a synergistic role.     

Epidermal jasmonate perception is sufficient for all aspects of jasmonate‐mediated male fertility in Arabidopsis

Jasmonate (JA) signaling is essential for several environmental responses and reproductive development in many plant species. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the most obvious phenotype of JA biosynthetic and perception mutants is profound sporophytic male sterility characterized by failure of stamen filament elongation, severe delay of anther dehiscence and pollen inviability. The site of action of JA in the context of reproductive development has been discussed, but the ideas have not been tested experimentally. To this end we used targeted expression of a COI1‐YFP transgene in the coi1‐1 mutant background. As COI1 is an essential component of the JA co‐receptor complex, the null coi1‐1 mutant is male sterile due to lack of JA perception. We show that expression of COI1‐YFP in the epidermis of the stamen filament and anther in coi1 mutant plants is sufficient to rescue filament elongation, anther dehiscence and pollen viability. In contrast, filament expression alone or expression in the tapetum do not restore dehiscence and pollen viability. These results demonstrate that epidermal JA perception is sufficient for anther function and pollen viability, and suggest the presence of a JA‐dependent non‐autonomous signal produced in the anther epidermis to synchronize both anther dehiscence and pollen maturation.     

Analysis of the Maize dicer-like1 Mutant,fuzzy tassel,Implicates MicroRNAs in Anther Maturation and Dehiscence

Sexual reproduction in plants requires development of haploid gametophytes from somatic tissues. Pollen is the male gametophyte and develops within the stamen; defects in the somatic tissues of the stamen and in the male gametophyte itself can result in male sterility. The maize fuzzy tassel (fzt) mutant has a mutation in dicer-like1 (dcl1), which encodes a key enzyme required for microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis. Many miRNAs are reduced in fzt, and fzt mutants exhibit a broad range of developmental defects, including male sterility. To gain further insight into the roles of miRNAs in maize stamen development, we conducted a detailed analysis of the male sterility defects in fzt mutants. Early development was normal in fzt mutant anthers, however fzt anthers arrested in late stages of anther maturation and did not dehisce. A minority of locules in fzt anthers also exhibited anther wall defects. At maturity, very little pollen in fzt anthers was viable or able to germinate. Normal pollen is tricellular at maturity; pollen from fzt anthers included a mixture of unicellular, bicellular, and tricellular pollen. Pollen from normal anthers is loaded with starch before dehiscence, however pollen from fzt anthers failed to accumulate starch. Our results indicate an absolute requirement for miRNAs in the final stages of anther and pollen maturation in maize. Anther wall defects also suggest that miRNAs have key roles earlier in anther development. We discuss candidate miRNAs and pathways that might underlie fzt anther defects, and also note that male sterility in fzt resembles water deficit-induced male sterility, highlighting a possible link between development and stress responses in plants.     

Is There ‘Anther-Anther Interference’ within a Flower? Evidences from One-by-One Stamen Movement in an Insect-Pollinated Plant

The selective pressure imposed by maximizing male fitness (pollen dispersal) in shaping floral structures is increasingly recognized and emphasized in current plant sciences. To maximize male fitness, many flowers bear a group of stamens with temporally separated anther dehiscence that prolongs presentation of pollen grains. Such an advantage, however, may come with a cost resulting from interference of pollen removal by the dehisced anthers. This interference between dehisced and dehiscing anthers has received little attention and few experimental tests to date. Here, using one-by-one stamen movement in the generalist-pollinated Parnassia palustris, we test this hypothesis by manipulation experiments in two years. Under natural conditions, the five fertile stamens in P. palustris flowers elongate their filaments individually, and anthers dehisce successively one-by-one. More importantly, the anther-dehisced stamen bends out of the floral center by filament deflexion before the next stamen''s anther dehiscence. Experimental manipulations show that flowers with dehisced anther remaining at the floral center experience shorter (1/3–1/2 less) visit durations by pollen-collecting insects (mainly hoverflies and wasps) because these ‘hungry’ insects are discouraged by the scant and non-fresh pollen in the dehisced anther. Furthermore, the dehisced anther blocks the dehiscing anther''s access to floral visitors, resulting in a nearly one third decrease in their contact frequency. As a result, pollen removal of the dehiscing anther decreases dramatically. These results provide the first direct experimental evidence that anther-anther interference is possible in a flower, and that the selection to reduce such interferences can be a strong force in floral evolution. We also propose that some other floral traits, usually interpreted as pollen dispensing mechanisms, may function, at least partially, as mechanisms to promote pollen dispersal by reducing interferences between dehisced and dehiscing anthers.     

Gibberellin regulates Arabidopsis floral development via suppression of DELLA protein function

The phytohormone gibberellin (GA) regulates the development and fertility of Arabidopsis flowers. The mature flowers of GA-deficient mutant plants typically exhibit reduced elongation growth of petals and stamens. In addition, GA-deficiency blocks anther development, resulting in male sterility. Previous analyses have shown that GA promotes the elongation of plant organs by opposing the function of the DELLA proteins, a family of nuclear growth repressors. However, it was not clear that the DELLA proteins are involved in the GA-regulation of stamen and anther development. We show that GA regulates cell elongation rather than cell division during Arabidopsis stamen filament elongation. In addition, GA regulates the cellular developmental pathway of anthers leading from microspore to mature pollen grain. Genetic analysis shows that the Arabidopsis DELLA proteins RGA and RGL2 jointly repress petal, stamen and anther development in GA-deficient plants, and that this function is enhanced by RGL1 activity. GA thus promotes Arabidopsis petal, stamen and anther development by opposing the function of the DELLA proteins RGA, RGL1 and RGL2.     

花内雄蕊分化及其适应意义

对花内雄蕊存在显著分化的现象进行了分析与归纳, 总结了花内雄蕊分化的各种主要形式及其繁殖适应意义。“花内雄蕊分化”是指花内雄蕊与雄蕊之间存在显著分化的现象, 这一概念可以把二强雄蕊、四强雄蕊和异型雄蕊等以往单独进行研究的相关性状结合起来, 并明确区分了几种新的花内雄蕊分化形式, 以期更准确全面地认识这些相关性状的适应意义与进化。该文将花内雄蕊分化区别为花丝的分化、花药的分化、雄蕊合生的分化、雄蕊运动的分化、退化雄蕊5大类。花丝的分化主要是花丝长度的分化, 如四强雄蕊、二强雄蕊和单强雄蕊; 花药分化主要指花药颜色、花药与花粉粒大小和花药开裂时间等的分化; 雄蕊合生的分化主要体现为花内部分雄蕊合生而部分雄蕊离生; 雄蕊运动的分化指的是花内雄蕊在运动时间或方式上存在差异, 造成雄蕊处于不同的成熟阶段和位于不同的空间位置; 退化雄蕊则是花内部分雄蕊失去了生产花粉的繁殖功能, 通常也发生了花药形态上的巨大改变。异型雄蕊不仅存在花丝和花药的形态分化, 还存在着明显的功能分化, 是分化程度很高的一类特殊的花内雄蕊分化形式。一些特殊的繁育系统, 如异长花柱和镜像花柱等在种内不同个体上存在着不同形式的花内雄蕊分化。花内雄蕊分化在花内造成了多个不同的花药位置, 在很大程度上影响了雌雄异位程度, 对植物自交与异交水平、花内雌雄功能干扰等有着潜在作用; 花内雄蕊分化形成的多个不同空间位置的雄蕊还增加了对多种访花者的吸引与适应潜力, 有可能影响到访花者的类型与访花行为, 得以适应多种传粉者。此外, 花内雄蕊分化可将花粉逐渐分批次分发给访花者, 提高花粉散布效率, 可看成是“花粉呈现理论”所指的花粉装配与分发机制之一。现有的实验研究发现, 花内雄蕊分化能够吸引传粉者、保护正常花药和花粉、促进花粉散发(降低花粉竞争)、实行延迟自交和降低花内雌雄功能干扰等。花内雄蕊分化还缺少系统研究, 有些雄蕊分化形式如单强雄蕊和雄蕊运动的分化还没有针对性的实验揭示其适应意义, 鸭跖草科和某些豆科植物的雄蕊三型分化等现象也缺少进化适应意义的研究。花内雄蕊分化对植物雌性和雄性适合度可能不同的影响、如何与访花者相互作用、如何与其它花部特征一起影响植物繁殖过程等, 可能是这一领域值得今后优先研究的课题。     

ATP binding cassette transporters ABCG1 and ABCG16 affect reproductive development via auxin signalling in Arabidopsis

Angiosperm reproductive development is a complex event that includes floral organ development, male and female gametophyte formation and interaction between the male and female reproductive organs for successful fertilization. Previous studies have revealed the redundant function of ATP binding cassette subfamily G (ABCG) transporters ABCG1 and ABCG16 in pollen development, but whether they are involved in other reproductive processes is unknown. Here we show that ABCG1 and ABCG16 were not only expressed in anthers and stamen filaments but also enriched in pistil tissues, including the stigma, style, transmitting tract and ovule. We further demonstrated that pistil‐expressed ABCG1 and ABCG16 promoted rapid pollen tube growth through their effects on auxin distribution and auxin flow in the pistil. Moreover, disrupted auxin homeostasis in stamen filaments was associated with defective filament elongation. Our work reveals the key functions of ABCG1 and ABCG16 in reproductive development and provides clues for identifying ABCG1 and ABCG16 substrates in Arabidopsis.     

Characterization and genetic mapping of a mutation (ms35) which prevents anther dehiscence in Arabidopsis thaliana by affecting secondary wall thickening in the endothecium

The male sterile mutant, ms35 , of Arabidopsis thaliana was produced by X-irradiation of seeds. The mutant produces fertile pollen, but is male sterile because the anthers do not dehisce. Anther development in ms35 plants occurs as in wild-type Arabidopsis until shortly after microspores are released from meiotic tetrads. Thereafter, in the wild type, bands of lignified, cellulosic secondary wall thickenings are laid down around the cells of the anther endothecium. In contrast, wall thickenings are not formed in the endothecium of the ms35 mutant. Development of other lignified tissues, for example the vascular tissue of the stamen, occurs normally in ms35 plants. In mutant anthers, as pollen maturation is completed, the stomium is cleaved but the anther wall does not retract to release pollen. The block in anther dehiscence in ms35 plants is specifically correlated with the absence of endothecial wall thickenings. The ms35 mutation represents the first genetic evidence in support of the proposed role of the endothecium in anther dehiscence. The ms35 gene was mapped to the top arm of chromosome 3 ( hy2 -(4.17±2.31 cM)- ms35 -(32.14±5.45 cM)- gl1 ).     

Receptor-like protein kinase 2 (RPK 2) is a novel factor controlling anther development in Arabidopsis thaliana

Receptor-like kinases (RLK) comprise a large gene family within the Arabidopsis genome and play important roles in plant growth and development as well as in hormone and stress responses. Here we report that a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK), RECEPTOR-LIKE PROTEIN KINASE2 (RPK2), is a key regulator of anther development in Arabidopsis. Two RPK2 T-DNA insertional mutants (rpk2-1 and rpk2-2) displayed enhanced shoot growth and male sterility due to defects in anther dehiscence and pollen maturation. The rpk2 anthers only developed three cell layers surrounding the male gametophyte: the middle layer was not differentiated from inner secondary parietal cells. Pollen mother cells in rpk2 anthers could undergo meiosis, but subsequent differentiation of microspores was inhibited by tapetum hypertrophy, with most resulting pollen grains exhibiting highly aggregated morphologies. The presence of tetrads and microspores in individual anthers was observed during microspore formation, indicating that the developmental homeostasis of rpk2 anther locules was disrupted. Anther locules were finally crushed without stomium breakage, a phenomenon that was possibly caused by inadequate thickening and lignification of the endothecium. Microarray analyses revealed that many genes encoding metabolic enzymes, including those involved in cell wall metabolism and lignin biosynthesis, were downregulated throughout anther development in rpk2 mutants. RPK2 mRNA was abundant in the tapetum of wild-type anthers during microspore maturation. These results suggest that RPK2 controls tapetal cell fate by triggering subsequent tapetum degradation, and that mutating RPK2 impairs normal pollen maturation and anther dehiscence due to disruption of key metabolic pathways.     

The arabidopsis DELAYED DEHISCENCE1 gene encodes an enzyme in the jasmonic acid synthesis pathway

delayed dehiscence1 is an Arabidopsis T-DNA mutant in which anthers release pollen grains too late for pollination to occur. The delayed dehiscence1 defect is caused by a delay in the stomium degeneration program. The gene disrupted in delayed dehiscence1 encodes 12-oxophytodienoate reductase, an enzyme in the jasmonic acid biosynthesis pathway. We rescued the mutant phenotype by exogenous application of jasmonic acid and obtained seed set from previously male-sterile plants. In situ hybridization studies showed that during the early stages of floral development, DELAYED DEHISCENCE1 mRNA accumulated within all floral organs. Later, DELAYED DEHISCENCE1 mRNA accumulated specifically within the pistil, petals, and stamen filaments. DELAYED DEHISCENCE1 mRNA was not detected in the stomium and septum cells of the anther that are involved in pollen release. The T-DNA insertion in delayed dehiscence1 eliminated both DELAYED DEHISCENCE1 mRNA accumulation and 12-oxophytodienoate reductase activity. These experiments suggest that jasmonic acid signaling plays a role in controlling the time of anther dehiscence within the flower.     

Expression of a wheat ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene during development of normal and water-stress-affected anthers

In wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), water deficit during meiosis in the microspore mother cells (MMCs) induces pollen abortion, resulting in the failure of fertilization and a reduction in grain set. In stressed plants, meiosis in MMCs proceeds normally but subsequent pollen development is arrested. Unlike normal pollen grains, which accumulate starch during the late maturation phase, stress-affected anthers contain pollen grains with little or no starch. Stress also alters the normal distribution of starch in the anther wall and connective tissue. To determine how starch biosynthesis is regulated within the developing anthers of stressed plants, we studied the expression of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP), which catalyzes the rate limiting step of starch biosynthesis. Two partial-length cDNAs corresponding to the large subunit of AGP were amplified by RT-PCR from anther RNA, and used as probes to monitor AGP expression in developing anthers of normal and water-stressed plants. These clones, WAL1 and WAL2, had identical deduced amino acid sequences and shared 96% sequence identity at the nucleic acid level. In normal anthers, AGP expression was biphasic, indicating that AGP expression is required for starch biosynthesis both during meiosis and later during pollen maturation. AGP expression in stressed anthers was not affected during the first phase of starch accumulation, but was strongly inhibited during the second phase. We conclude from these results that the reduced starch deposition later in the development of stressed pollen could be the result of a lower expression of AGP. However, this inhibition of AGP expression is unlikely to be the primary cause of male sterility because anatomical symptoms of pollen abortion are observed prior to the time when AGP expression is inhibited.     

湖北黄精大小孢子发生及雌雄配子体发育

【目的】研究湖北黄精花部形态结构特征和大小孢子发生及雌雄配子体发育过程,以丰富黄精属植物的生殖生物学理论,为进一步开展湖北黄精的品种选育提供依据。【方法】以不同发育时期的湖北黄精花芽为试验材料,用显微观察法观察花部形态结构特征,石蜡切片技术对单花雌雄蕊进行切片观察。【结果】湖北黄精的花被为白色或淡黄绿色,花被筒近喉部稍缢缩;具6枚雄蕊,花丝下端与花被合生,花药开裂方式为纵裂;雌蕊子房上位,3心皮,花柱与子房等长。湖北黄精花药壁由4层细胞组成,成熟的绒毡层具多核,绒毡层发育类型为分泌型;小孢子母细胞减数分裂为连续型,四分体呈左右对称型排列,成熟花粉粒为2-细胞型;存在小孢子发育不同步的现象。雌蕊胚珠具双珠被、厚珠心;四分体呈直线型排列,胚囊发育类型为蓼型;存在双胚囊胚珠现象。在雄蕊的花药壁和雌蕊的子房壁都观察到有束状草酸钙针晶。【结论】湖北黄精雌雄蕊具有较原始的发育特征,虽然在发育过程中都存在异常现象,但雄蕊最终能形成正常的雄配子体,雌蕊低频率的双胚囊现象对总体受精结果影响很小。湖北黄精杂交育种可以选择花药开裂前一时期的花粉,花药壁和子房壁观察到的束状草酸钙针晶无法作为湖北黄精物种鉴定的...     

The DEFECTIVE IN ANTHER DEHISCIENCE gene encodes a novel phospholipase A1 catalyzing the initial step of jasmonic acid biosynthesis, which synchronizes pollen maturation, anther dehiscence, and flower opening in Arabidopsis

The Arabidopsis mutant defective in anther dehiscence1 (dad1) shows defects in anther dehiscence, pollen maturation, and flower opening. The defects were rescued by the exogenous application of jasmonic acid (JA) or linolenic acid, which is consistent with the reduced accumulation of JA in the dad1 flower buds. We identified the DAD1 gene by T-DNA tagging, which is characteristic to a putative N-terminal transit peptide and a conserved motif found in lipase active sites. DAD1 protein expressed in Escherichia coli hydrolyzed phospholipids in an sn-1-specific manner, and DAD1-green fluorescent protein fusion protein expressed in leaf epidermal cells localized predominantly in chloroplasts. These results indicate that the DAD1 protein is a chloroplastic phospholipase A1 that catalyzes the initial step of JA biosynthesis. DAD1 promoter::beta-glucuronidase analysis revealed that the expression of DAD1 is restricted in the stamen filaments. A model is presented in which JA synthesized in the filaments regulates the water transport in stamens and petals.     

短命植物甘新念珠芥（Neotorularia korolkovii）和宽翅菘蓝（Isatis violascens）的物候与性表达特征

甘新念珠芥（Neotorularia korolkovii）和宽翅菘蓝（Isatis violascens）是两种广泛分布于新疆准噶尔荒漠的十字花科早春短命植物。对其物候与性表达特征研究结果表明：(1) 二者种子均在3月下旬萌发,5月下旬和6月上旬果实完全成熟,生活周期分别为62d和71d,其中营养生长期约占1/3、生殖生长期约占2/3。(2) 花均为两性,四强雄蕊,单花开放时间较短,长雄蕊的花药开裂早于短雄蕊,但短雄蕊花药中的花粉数较长雄蕊的多。(3) 长、短雄蕊花药中花粉可育率均达90%以上,花粉活力的变化曲线基本相同,柱头可授期分别为9.0h和4.5h,花粉寿命及柱头可授期均短于单花花期,花粉活力最高的时期正是其柱头的最佳授粉期。柱头可授期与花粉活力及寿命在时间上的高度吻合,增加了在不可预测环境中授粉的机会与效率,从而保障生殖成功。(4) 二者的P/O（花粉/胚珠）值分别为108.07±17.17、992.10±272.16,属于自交繁育系统;对其传粉过程、套袋实验及荧光显微观察的结果也证明它们主要以自花传粉的方式来进行交配。(5) 两种植物从物候、花部性表达以及交配式样上均存在与其严酷荒漠环境相适应的特点,是长期适应准噶尔荒漠特殊生态环境的结果,对于保证繁殖成功并扩大种群具有重要的意义。     

烟草花发育过程中花药和花粉IAA分布规律的研究

以烟草（Nicotiana tabacumL.）花药为材料,通过4’,6-二脒基-2-苯基吲哚（DAPI）染色详细观察花粉发育过程,获得了花药发育时期与花蕾大小的对应关系;通过吲哚乙酸（IAA）单克隆抗体、免疫组织化学技术以及DR5∶∶GUS转基因植株的GUS活性对花药和花粉发育过程中生长素的分布规律进行了研究。免疫酶标记结果表明,在不同的花药发育时期IAA水平呈现出明显的差别。小孢子母细胞时期,IAA在整个花药中均有分布,并且在小孢子母细胞发育晚期,IAA信号集中在小孢子母细胞的细胞核中;随着小孢子母细胞减数分裂后形成四分体,IAA信号逐渐减弱,四分体中几乎没有信号;单核花粉期的花药中IAA信号进一步减弱,仅存在于花药壁中;待小孢子继续发育为成熟二核期时,花粉和整个花药组织中均出现较强的IAA信号。GUS活性检测结果表明,烟草DR5∶∶GUS转基因植株中花药和花粉粒的GUS信号与IAA免疫酶定位结果基本一致。总的来说,IAA在烟草花药和花粉中的积累呈现出由强到弱、再由弱到强的分布规律,暗示IAA在被子植物花药和花粉发育过程中可能起着较为重要的作用。     

Filament histology and anther dehiscence

Several distinctive histological features of the stamen, especially of the filament, are described, some of these for the first time: for example, commonness of (a) mesarch xylem maturation, amphicribral bundles or else collateral strands with phloem considerably enveloping the xylem, and clustering of sieve elements of a bundle and their spatial separation from tracheary elements, (b) exclusively helical wall thickenings of tracheary elements and absence of sclerenchyma, (c) open stomata, a weakly developed cuticle, a prominent intercellular-space system, xylem lacunae, and (d) tannins and crystals. Some of the features in category (a) seem related to the nutritional needs of developing pollen grains in the anther. Features in category (b) are directly related to the usual expansion of the stamen, in particular the filament, before and at anthesis. Features in category (c) (and possibly (d)) probably promote a rapid loss of water or a disruption of the water supply to the anther, and therefore might facilitate anther dehiscence (these features could operate either in isolation or in unison). Tannins, crystals, and secretory structures have been implicated in the protection of pollen against predators.