5'UTR中AUG的分布及其对翻译起始的影响

以细菌和古菌基因组5’UTR序列作为研究对象,分析在5’UTR的3个不同阅读框架中三联体AUG的分布,发现无论是细菌还是古菌基因组都在阅读框1中有非常明显的AUG缺失（depletion）。AUG的缺失表明在起始密码子上游的AUG很可能会对基因的翻译起始产生影响。分析得知：绝大部分的AUG都是以uORF（upstream open readingframe）的形式出现的,uAUG（upstreamAUG）的数量很少,特别是在阅读框1中,而且在细菌基因组的阅读框1中uAUG较多地出现在了含有SD序列的基因上游。比较发现,uAUG引导的序列在同义密码子使用上的偏好性较真正的编码序列差,这可能表明细菌和古菌在同义密码子使用上的偏好性也是决定基因准确地翻译起始的重要因素之一。     

m RNA5′端不同位置的二级结构对原核生物翻译起始的影响

一个 2 1 bp的序列插入 B50中的人 PCNA- Lac Z′融合蛋白 m RNA的 SD序列的上游 1 1 bpH ind 切点处 ,构成正、反向插入的两个重组质粒 B50 il、B50 i2 .通过计算机程序对 m RNA二级结构的模拟分析 ,B50 il的插入序列在翻译起始区 (TIR)前形成一个发夹结构 ,但不影响 TIR的二级结构 ;B50 i2的插入序列在 TIR 5′端形成一个二级结构 ;而另一克隆 D1 3与 B50因 SD前后的 6个和 7个碱基序列的不同 ;使翻译起始区 TIR的 SD到 AUG附近的二级结构不相同 .实验测定的四者的β-半乳糖苷酶活性与计算机计算的解开 m RNA TIR的二级结构所需能量ΔE进行比较 ,其结果说明 m RNA TIR前面的二级结构对翻译起始无影响 ,而位于 TIR的 5′端的二级结构对翻译起始效率是有影响的 .不过 ,它与 m RNA TIR的 SD到 AUG的附近的二级结构对翻译起始效率的影响相比 ,TIR5′端二级结构的影响比较小 .同时 ,PCNA- Lac Z和 PCNA- Lac Z′两种融合蛋白的β-半乳糖苷酶活性也进行了比较 ,酶活性有差别 ,但不同质粒酶活性的比值仍相同 .     

m RNA5′端不同位置的二级结构对原核生物翻译起始的影响

 一个 2 1 bp的序列插入 B50中的人 PCNA- Lac Z′融合蛋白 m RNA的 SD序列的上游 1 1 bpH ind 切点处 ,构成正、反向插入的两个重组质粒 B50 il、B50 i2 .通过计算机程序对 m RNA二级结构的模拟分析 ,B50 il的插入序列在翻译起始区 (TIR)前形成一个发夹结构 ,但不影响 TIR的二级结构 ;B50 i2的插入序列在 TIR 5′端形成一个二级结构 ;而另一克隆 D1 3与 B50因 SD前后的 6个和 7个碱基序列的不同 ;使翻译起始区 TIR的 SD到 AUG附近的二级结构不相同 .实验测定的四者的β-半乳糖苷酶活性与计算机计算的解开 m RNA TIR的二级结构所需能量ΔE进行比较 ,其结果说明 m RNA TIR前面的二级结构对翻译起始无影响 ,而位于 TIR的 5′端的二级结构对翻译起始效率是有影响的 .不过 ,它与 m RNA TIR的 SD到 AUG的附近的二级结构对翻译起始效率的影响相比 ,TIR5′端二级结构的影响比较小 .同时 ,PCNA- Lac Z和 PCNA- Lac Z′两种融合蛋白的β-半乳糖苷酶活性也进行了比较 ,酶活性有差别 ,但不同质粒酶活性的比值仍相同 .     

mRNA翻译起始区的结构改变对几个外源基因翻译的影响

为观察ｍＲＮＡ翻译起始区结构与基因表达的关系,利用密码子的简并性,在不改变表达产物氨基酸序列的前提下定点突变几个外源基因的５′端若干位点,使基佤表达载体重组后转录形成的ｍＲＮＡ翻译起始区结构发生改变。经ＳＤＳ－ＰＡＧＥ等分析证实这些改变大大提高了外源基因的表达水平,ＲＮＡｄｏｔｂｌｏｔ表明突变与非突变基因转录水平差别不大,表达水平的提高主要由于翻译效率的提高,ｍＲＮＡ翻译起始区二级结构预测提示其生     

mRNA 5'端发卡结构与翻译的起始调控

mRNA的5’端大多存在各种由RNA自身折叠形成的发卡结构,这些结构对于核糖体识别mRNA翻译起始位点并与之准确结合往往具有十分重要的意义。简要综述了此类结构的基本特征以及它们在生物体内所起到的调控蛋白质翻译的作用。     

mRNA翻译起始区二级结构改变对干扰素基因在大肠杆菌中翻译的影响

为研究mRNA翻译起始区结构与基因表达的关系,利用密码子的简并性,在不改变表达产物氨基酸序列的前提下定点突变α8干扰素及αA干扰素衍生物基因的5′端若干位点,使其与表达载体重组后转录形成的mRNA翻译起始区结构发生改变。SDS-PAGE及活性测定证实这些改变提高了外源基因的表达水平。RNA斑点印迹表明突变前后基因转录水平差别不大,表达水平的提高主要由于翻译效率的提高。mRNA翻译起始区二级结构预测提示其生成自由能(ΔG)的变化可能与表达水平的提高有关。     

真核生物蛋白质翻译的内部起始机制

蛋白质翻译过程中,翻译的起始步骤是非常重要的．真核生物的翻译起始主要是通过依赖帽子结构的扫描机制进行的．近几年在翻译的研究工作中发现,在一些动物病毒中,蛋白质合成通过一种不同于扫描机制的内部起始机制起始翻译．用内部起始机制翻译的mRNA的5′端非翻译区有一个相对保守的结构,它在内部起始过程中具有重要作用,一些特异的蛋白质因子能够促进在特定位点起始翻译．     

人体Irisin前体FNDC5的潜在起始翻译机制

Irisin是FNDC5(III型纤连蛋白域包含蛋白5)经蛋白水解酶水解后分泌的水溶性多肽片段,又称肌因子,可促进脂肪棕色化,与血糖代谢密切相关。重点研究了人类Irisin的起始翻译位点,探讨了Irisin前体FNDC5蛋白(可以形成Irisin的FNDC5)的起始翻译机制。运用进化分析和序列模体识别方法研究了人类FNDC5同源性最高的前20个序列,以确定人Irisin前体的起始翻译位点;采取GO富集、发夹结构与上下文环境分析归纳non-ATG翻译起始密码子的序列及功能的共性,同时解析ATA翻译起始密码子的特性。结果发现:与其他物种FNDC5多序列比对,人Irisin前体FNDC5以ATA为起始密码子;人类全基因组non-ATG起始翻译的上下文偏好-3位嘌呤(A/G)、+4位鸟嘌呤(C)以及特殊位置的发夹结构;不同的起始密码子具有不同的上下文偏好;人类全基因组中non-ATG蛋白富集于代谢过程、生物调节、核苷酸转录因子和连接等功能,多是调节性蛋白。研究结果表明,人体Irisin的前体FNDC5起始翻译具有ATA起始密码子潜在的最优上下文环境,可能存在独特的non-ATG起始翻译机制,且人体non-ATG起始翻译的蛋白可能在人体代谢调控中发挥重要的作用。     

鸡基因组差异表达基因翻译起始密码子上下游序列的比较研究

翻译起始调控是基因表达调控的一个关键步骤之一。本文以鸡为研究材料,比较研究了鸡基因组高表达基因和低表达基因翻译起始密码子上下游的碱基序列差异,旨在寻找影响鸡基因表达水平的特异性调控位点。全部3 020个单剪接基因完整的mRNA序列及有详细注释的5＇UTRs序列从Ensembl下载。编写计算机程序,读取每个基因mRNA起始密码子上下游各位点的碱基。研究发现,起始密码子上游-3、-2位点可能是鸡基因组基因表达起始密码子正确识别的关键位点。起始密码子上下游的碱基组成分析发现,高表达基因和低表达基因起始密码子的上游均倾向使用（G＋C）,高表达基因的使用偏倚尤为强烈。序列差异比较发现,高表达基因在-9、-6、-3、＋4位点显著偏向G,在-1、-2、-4、-5位点显著偏向C。低表达基因起始密码子上游使用A、U的频率显著高于低表达基因。在-19位点强烈偏向A,在＋1、＋11、＋14位点强烈偏向U。     

真核翻译起始因子5A和多胺代谢及肿瘤的关系

真核翻译起始因子5A(eIF5A)是真核生物中普遍存在且高度保守的蛋白质,含有一个独特的氨基酸——羟腐胺赖氨酸,该氨基酸是在赖氨酸的基础上经翻译后修饰而成,该过程与多胺代谢密切相关。研究发现,eIF5A和多胺代谢以及肿瘤的发生发展密切相关,有望成为抗肿瘤靶向治疗新的分子靶点。现就eIF5A和多胺代谢及肿瘤关系的研究进展作一简要综述。     

Interrelations between the Nucleotide Context of Human Start AUG Codon,N-end Amino Acids of the Encoded Protein and Initiation of Translation

Abstract

It is known that the recognition of AUG triplet by eukaryotic ribosomes as a translation start site strongly depends on its nucleotide context. However, the relative significance of different context positions is not fully clear. In particular, it concerns the role of 3′-end part of the context located at the beginning of the protein-coding sequence. The significant bias observed in nucleotide frequencies in positions +4, +5, +6 (corresponding to the second codon of CDS) could result from different reasons and their contribution to start codon recognition and initiation of translation is under discussion. In this study, we conducted a comparative computational analysis of the human mRNA samples containing different nucleotides (adenine, guanine or pyrimidine) in the essential context position ?3. It was found that the presence of G in position +4 could be important for the context variant GnnAUG but not for AnnAUG. Interestingly, the second position of proteins encoded by mRNAs with AnnAUG context variant was specifically and significantly enriched with serine whereas the presence of GnnAUG context also correlated with a higher occurrence of alanine and glycine. It is likely that the efficiency of translation initiation process can depend on the interplay between 5′-context part, 3′-context part and the type of amino acid in the second position of the encoded protein.     

Yeast 18 S rRNA Is Directly Involved in the Ribosomal Response to Stringent AUG Selection during Translation Initiation

In eukaryotes, the 40 S ribosomal subunit serves as the platform of initiation factor assembly, to place itself precisely on the AUG start codon. Structural arrangement of the 18 S rRNA determines the overall shape of the 40 S subunit. Here, we present genetic evaluation of yeast 18 S rRNA function using 10 point mutations altering the polysome profile. All the mutants reduce the abundance of the mutant 40 S, making it limiting for translation initiation. Two of the isolated mutations, G875A, altering the core of the platform domain that binds eIF1 and eIF2, and A1193U, changing the h31 loop located below the P-site tRNA_i^Met, show phenotypes indicating defective regulation of AUG selection. Evidence is provided that these mutations reduce the interaction with the components of the preinitiation complex, thereby inhibiting its function at different steps. These results indicate that the 18 S rRNA mutations impair the integrity of scanning-competent preinitiation complex, thereby altering the 40 S subunit response to stringent AUG selection. Interestingly, nine of the mutations alter the body/platform domains of 18 S rRNA, potentially affecting the bridges to the 60 S subunit, but they do not change the level of 18 S rRNA intermediates. Based on these results, we also discuss the mechanism of the selective degradation of the mutant 40 S subunits.     

Effect of tandem repeated AUG codons on translation efficiency of eukaryotic mRNA carrying a short leader sequence

The effect on translation of multiple copies of the initiation codon AUG at the initiation site in a eukaryotic mRNA carrying a short leader sequence was tested in translation experiments in vitro. DNA, corresponding to a chimeric mRNA sequence consisting of the 5 leader region of brome mosaic virus (BMV) RNA4 and the goat pre--lactalbumin mRNA sequence, was prepared and transcribed in vitro using SP6 RNA polymerase. Site-directed mutagenesis was carried out to change the sequence around the initiation codon AUG. In a wheat germ translation system, the yield of protein obtained using the mRNA with a duplication of the AUG codons at the initiation site was 1.6 times that achieved when only one AUG was present. The rate of formation of the 80S initiation complex was measured by the ribosome binding assay using cycloheximide. A good correlation was observed between the ability to form the complex and translation efficiency.     

Global Brain Ischemia and Reperfusion: Modifications in Eukaryotic Initiation Factors Associated with Inhibition of Translation Initiation

Abstract: We used in vitro translation and antibodies against phosphoserine and the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E, eIF-4G, and eIF-2α to examine the effects of global brain ischemia and reperfusion on translation initiation and its regulation in a rat model of 10 min of cardiac arrest followed by resuscitation and 90 min of reperfusion. Translation reactions were performed on postmitochondrial supernatants from brain homogenates with and without aurintricarboxylic acid to separate incorporation due to run-off from incorporation due to peptide synthesis initiated in vitro. The rate of leucine incorporation due to in vitro-initiated protein synthesis in normal forebrain homogenates was ∼0.4 fmol of leucine/min/µg of protein and was unaffected by 10 min of cardiac arrest, but 90 min of reperfusion reduced this rate 83%. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blots of these homogenates showed that neither 10 min of global brain ischemia nor 90 min of reperfusion induced significant alterations in the quantity or serine phosphorylation of eIF-4E. However, we observed in all 90-min-reperfused samples eIF-4G fragments that also bound eIF-4E. The amount of eIF-2α was not altered by ischemia or reperfusion, and immunoblotting after isoelectric focusing did not detect serine-phosphorylated eIF-2α in normal samples or in those obtained after ischemia without reperfusion. However, serine-phosphorylated eIF-2α was uniformly present after 90 min of reperfusion and represented 24 ± 3% of the eIF-2α in these samples. The serine phosphorylation of eIF-2α and partial fragmentation of eIF-4G observed after 90 min of reperfusion offer an explanation for the inhibition of protein synthesis.     

The in Vivo TRPV6 Protein Starts at a Non-AUG Triplet,Decoded as Methionine,Upstream of Canonical Initiation at AUG

TRPV6 channels function as epithelial Ca²⁺ entry pathways in the epididymis, prostate, and placenta. However, the identity of the endogenous TRPV6 protein relies on predicted gene coding regions and is only known to a certain level of approximation. We show that in vivo the TRPV6 protein has an extended N terminus. Translation initiates at a non-AUG codon, at ACG, which is decoded by methionine and which is upstream of the annotated AUG, which is not used for initiation. The in vitro properties of channels formed by the extended full-length TRPV6 proteins and the so-far annotated and smaller TRPV6 are similar, but the extended N terminus increases trafficking to the plasma membrane and represents an additional scaffold for channel assembly. The increased translation of the smaller TRPV6 cDNA version may overestimate the in vivo situation where translation efficiency may represent an additional mechanism to tightly control the TRPV6-mediated Ca²⁺ entry to prevent deleterious Ca²⁺ overload.     

Functional Characterization of the Role of the N-terminal Domain of the c/Nip1 Subunit of Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 3 (eIF3) in AUG Recognition

In eukaryotes, for a protein to be synthesized, the 40 S subunit has to first scan the 5'-UTR of the mRNA until it has encountered the AUG start codon. Several initiation factors that ensure high fidelity of AUG recognition were identified previously, including eIF1A, eIF1, eIF2, and eIF5. In addition, eIF3 was proposed to coordinate their functions in this process as well as to promote their initial binding to 40 S subunits. Here we subjected several previously identified segments of the N-terminal domain (NTD) of the eIF3c/Nip1 subunit, which mediates eIF3 binding to eIF1 and eIF5, to semirandom mutagenesis to investigate the molecular mechanism of eIF3 involvement in these reactions. Three major classes of mutant substitutions or internal deletions were isolated that affect either the assembly of preinitiation complexes (PICs), scanning for AUG, or both. We show that eIF5 binds to the extreme c/Nip1-NTD (residues 1-45) and that impairing this interaction predominantly affects the PIC formation. eIF1 interacts with the region (60-137) that immediately follows, and altering this contact deregulates AUG recognition. Together, our data indicate that binding of eIF1 to the c/Nip1-NTD is equally important for its initial recruitment to PICs and for its proper functioning in selecting the translational start site.     

Effect of codon adaptation on codon-level and gene-level translation efficiency in vivo

Background

There is a significant difference between synonymous codon usage in many organisms, and it is known that codons used more frequently generally showed efficient decoding rate. At the gene level, however, there are conflicting reports on the existence of a correlation between codon adaptation and translation efficiency, even in the same organism.

Results

To resolve this issue, we cultured Escherichia coli under conditions designed to maintain constant levels of mRNA and protein and subjected the cells to ribosome profiling (RP) and mRNA-seq analyses. We showed that the RP results correlated more closely with protein levels generated under similar culture conditions than with the mRNA abundance from the mRNA-seq. Our result indicated that RP/mRNA ratio could be used as a measure of translation efficiency at gene level. On the other hand, the RP data showed that codon-specific ribosome density at the decoding site negatively correlated with codon usage, consistent with the hypothesis that preferred codons display lower ribosome densities due to their faster decoding rate. However, highly codon-adapted genes showed higher ribosome densities at the gene level, indicating that the efficiency of translation initiation, rather than higher elongation efficiency of preferred codons, exerted a greater effect on ribosome density and thus translation efficiency.

Conclusions

These findings indicate that evolutionary pressure on highly expressed genes influenced both codon bias and translation initiation efficiency and therefore explains contradictory findings that codon usage bias correlates with translation efficiency of native genes, but not with the artificially created gene pool, which was not subjected to evolution pressure.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-1115) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.