Early-glycation of apolipoprotein E: effect on its binding to LDL receptor,scavenger receptor A and heparan sulfates

Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) causes substantial morbidity afflicting approximately 10% of adult males. Treatment is often empirical and ineffective since the etiology is unknown. Other prostate and genitourinary diseases have genetic components suggesting that CP/CPPS may also be influenced by genetic predisposition. We recently reported a highly polymorphic short tandem repeat (STR) locus near the phosphoglycerate kinase gene within Xq11-13. Because this STR is in a region known to predispose towards other prostate diseases, we compared STR polymorphisms in 120 CP/CPPS patients and 300 control blood donors. Nine distinct allele sizes were detected, ranging from 8 to 15 repeats of the tetrameric STR plus a mutant allele (9.5) with a six base deletion in the flanking DNA sequence. The overall allele size distribution in the CP/CPPS patients differed from controls (Chi-square=19.252, df=8, P=0.0231). Frequencies of two specific alleles, 9.5 and 15, differed significantly in CP/CPPS vs. control subjects and allele 10 differed with marginal significance. Alleles 9.5 and 10 were both more common in CP/CPPS patients than controls while allele 15 was less common. These observations suggest that Xq11-13 may contain one or more genetic loci that predispose toward CP/CPPS. Further investigations involving family studies, larger patient populations, and other control groups may help elucidate this potential genetic predisposition in CP/CPPS.     

Nobiletin metabolite, 3′,4′-dihydroxy-5,6,7,8-tetramethoxyflavone,inhibits LDL oxidation and down-regulates scavenger receptor expression and activity in THP-1 cells

There is accumulating evidence that LDL oxidation is essential for atherogenesis and antioxidants that prevent oxidation may either decelerate or reduce atherogenesis. Current study focused on the effect and mechanism of 3′,4′-dihydroxy-5,6,7,8-tetramethoxyflavone (DTF), a major metabolite of nobiletin (NOB, a citrus polymethoxylated flavone) on atherogenesis. We found DTF had stronger inhibitory activity than α-tocopherol on inhibiting Cu²⁺-mediated LDL oxidation measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances assay (TBARS), conjugated diene formation and electrophoretic mobility. Monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation plays a vital role in early atherogenesis. DTF (10–20 μM) dose-dependently attenuated differentiation along with the reduced gene expression of scavenger receptors, CD36 and SR-A, in both PMA- and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-stimulated THP-1 monocytes. Furthermore, DTF treatment of monocytes and macrophages led to reduction of fluorescent DiI-acLDL and DiI-oxLDL uptake. In conclusion, at least three mechanisms are at work in parallel: DTF reduces LDL oxidation, attenuates monocyte differentiation into macrophage and blunts uptake of modified LDL by macrophage. The effect is different from that of NOB, from which DTF is derived. This study thus significantly enhanced our understanding on how DTF may be beneficial against atherogenesis.     

Pravastatin up-regulates transforming growth factor-beta1 in THP-1 human macrophages: effect on scavenger receptor class A expression

Statins have been shown to interact with several monocyte/macrophage functions. We tested the effect of pravastatin on transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) production and its possible involvement in scavenger receptors class A (SRA) expression in human THP-1 cells. TGF-beta1s biological activity in THP-1 cell conditioned medium, evaluated by luciferase activity of transfected cell with a TGF-beta responsive promoter, was increased in a dose-dependent manner after incubation with pravastatin (1-20 microM). Pravastatin (1-20 microM) induced a dose-dependent increase in TGF-beta1 mRNA expression and protein production in THP-1 cells. PMA-induced SRA gene and protein expression was suppressed by pravastatin with a mean 3-fold decrease at 10 microM. This last effect was reversed by a mouse monoclonal anti-TGF-beta1 neutralizing antibody. PD98059, a specific inhibitor of MAP kinase cascade, completely reversed pravastatin-induced SRA down-regulation. p44 and p42 isoforms showed a dose-dependent phosphorylation after treatment with pravastatin (1-20 microM) which was inhibited by a mouse monoclonal anti-TGF-beta1 antibody. Our results demonstrate that pravastatin significantly up-regulates TGF-beta1 expression which may be in involved in down-regulation of SRA expression in THP-1 cell cultures. A new pathway for pravastatin effects in atherogenesis can be suggested.     

A complete backbone spectral assignment of lipid-free human apolipoprotein E (apoE)

Apolipoprotein E is an exchangeable apolipoprotein that plays an important role in lipid/lipoprotein metabolism and cardiovascular diseases. Recent evidence indicates that apoE is also critical in several other important biological processes, including Alzheimer’s disease, cognitive function, immunoregulation, cell signaling and infectious diseases. Although the X-ray crystal structure of the apoE N-terminal domain was solved in 1991, there is no structure available for the apoE C-terminal domain and full-length apoE. Here we report a complete NMR backbone spectral assignment of lipid-free human apoE.     

A role for scavenger receptor B-I in selective transfer of rhodamine-PE from liposomes to cells

We investigated the potential role of scavenger receptor B-I (SR-BI) in the selective removal of liposomal markers from blood by hepatocytes. Liposomes were labeled with [(3)H]cholesteryloleyl-ether ([(3)H]COE), 1,2-di[1-(14)C]palmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine ([(14)C]PC), and N-(lissamine rhodamine-B sulfonyl)-phosphatidylethanolamine (N-Rh-PE). The radiolabels were eliminated at identical rates from plasma, while N-Rh-PE was cleared twice as fast. Involvement of SR-BI in the selective removal of N-Rh-PE from liposomes was studied in transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells over-expressing SR-BI. Uptake of N-Rh-PE from liposomes containing phosphatidylserine was higher than [(3)H]COE, and was further enhanced by apolipoprotein A-I, confirming involvement of SR-BI in the selective uptake of liposomal N-Rh-PE by cells.     

Glycated albumin and cross-linking of CD44 induce scavenger receptor expression and uptake of oxidized LDL in human monocytes

Functional role of CD44, a principal receptor of hyaluronan, and glycated albumin for differentiation of resting human monocytes isolated by counterflow centrifugal elutriation was investigated. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that amadori-modified glycated albumin induced expression of CD44 as well as macrophage scavenger receptors (MSRs) such as CD36 and CD68 on resting monocytes. Crosslinking of CD44 on monocytes also induced MSR expression. Furthermore, CD44 crosslinking and/or glycated albumin enhanced the uptake of oxidized-low density lipoprotein in monocytes and foam cell formation. Taken together, engagement of CD44 (e.g., hyaluronan) and glycated albumin induced the differentiation of resting monocytes into foam macrophages through the induction of MSRs, implying that CD44 could be involved in atherosclerotic lesions of those such as diabetic patients.     

Apolipoprotein B binds ferritin by hemin-mediated binding: evidence of direct binding of apolipoprotein B and ferritin to hemin

Apolipoprotein B (apoB) is known to be a ferritin-binding protein. Here we show that apoB binds to ferritin through hemin-mediated binding. Human apoB bound to bovine spleen, horse spleen, and canine liver ferritins, but did not bind to bovine apoferritin, even after incorporation of iron into it. Incubation of apoferritin with hemin resulted in apoB binding with apoferritin at the same level as with holoferritin. In contrast, hemin inhibited binding of apoB to ferritin. Bovine spleen apoferritin bound biotinylated hemin, and hemin inhibited the binding between the apoferritin and biotinylated hemin, suggesting that ferritin binds hemin directly. ApoB and LDL containing apoB bound biotinylated hemin, and their bindings were also inhibited by hemin, but not protoporphyrin IX. These data demonstrate that binding of apoB to ferritin is mediated through ferritin’s binding to hemin, and also that apoB binds hemin directly.     

Immunochemical analysis of the electronegative LDL subfraction shows that abnormal N-terminal apolipoprotein B conformation is involved in increased binding to proteoglycans

Electronegative LDL (LDL(-)) is a minor subfraction of modified LDL present in plasma. Among its atherogenic characteristics, low affinity to the LDL receptor and high binding to arterial proteoglycans (PGs) could be related to abnormalities in the conformation of its main protein, apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100). In the current study, we have performed an immunochemical analysis using monoclonal antibody (mAb) probes to analyze the conformation of apoB-100 in LDL(-). The study, performed with 28 anti-apoB-100 mAbs, showed that major differences of apoB-100 immunoreactivity between native LDL and LDL(-) concentrate in both terminal extremes. The mAbs Bsol 10, Bsol 14 (which recognize the amino-terminal region), Bsol 2, and Bsol 7 (carboxyl-terminal region) showed increased immunoreactivity in LDL(-), suggesting that both terminal extremes are more accessible in LDL(-) than in native LDL. The analysis of in vitro-modified LDLs, including LDL lipolyzed with sphingomyelinase (SMase-LDL) or phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)-LDL) and oxidized LDL (oxLDL), suggested that increased amino-terminal immunoreactivity was related to altered conformation due to aggregation. This was confirmed when the aggregated subfractions of LDL(-) (agLDL(-)) and oxLDL (ag-oxLDL) were isolated and analyzed. Thus, Bsol 10 and Bsol 14 immunoreactivity was high in SMase-LDL, ag-oxLDL, and agLDL(-). The altered amino-terminal apoB-100 conformation was involved in the increased PG binding affinity of agLDL(-) because Bsol 10 and Bsol 14 blocked its high PG-binding. These observations suggest that an abnormal conformation of the amino-terminal region of apoB-100 is responsible for the increased PG binding affinity of agLDL(-).     

Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin binding to a putative cell surface receptor, heparan sulfate, studied by surface plasmon resonance

The Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin or VacA toxin is a major virulence factor in H. pylori infection and type B gastritis. We predicted heparin/heparan sulfate (H/HS) binding properties of the 58-kDa subunit of VacA cytotoxin using bioinformatics tools and showed this by surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based biosensor studies. Putative H/HS binding peptides were synthesized and binding to HS was shown by SPR in the absence or presence of trifluoroethanol. We found that a recombinant cytotoxin VacA polypeptide binds to surface-immobilized HS and propose that HS might be a receptor/co-receptor for H. pylori VacA cytotoxin.     

Oxidative stress impairs endocytosis of the scavenger receptor class A

We report the characterization of a cell system employing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and CHO cells transfected with the scavenger receptor class A (CHO-SRA) using extracellularly produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) in order to study the endocytic function of the scavenger receptor. The oxidative environment was produced using tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH) and characterized by flow cytometry and cell viability. Once an adequate oxidative environment was established, binding and internalization studies of radiolabeled acetylated LDL particles (125I-labeled Ac-LDL) with CHO-SRA cells were carried out. RT-PCR analysis using total RNAs from CHO-SRA cells revealed that oxidative stress does not alter the expression of the scavenger receptor. However, internalization of 125I-labeled Ac-LDL through this receptor carried out by these cells was completely abolished under extracellularly oxidative conditions. Together, these results support the idea that an oxidative stress produced extracellularly, inhibiting the endocytosis of the scavenger receptor, could help to understand and explain the mechanisms by which several physiologically important ligands are accumulated in the extracellular space with its consequent cell damage.     

Oxidized LDL autoantibodies are related to apolipoprotein E phenotype,independently of postprandial change in plasma triglycerides and LDL size,among patients with angiographically verified coronary artery disease and healthy controls

OBJECTIVE: Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) autoantibodies (oxLDLab), apolipoprotein E (apoE) phenotype, postprandial triglyceride changes and LDL size are suggested to be risk factors for coronary artery disease (CAD). Our aim was to study the interaction between these new risk factors among patients with CAD and healthy controls. METHODS: oxLDLab from 31 men with angiographically verified CAD and 31 healthy men were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Isoelectric focusing and immunoblotting were used for apoE phenotyping. Triglyceride level was measured after 12 h of fasting and 3, 5 and 7 h after a high-fat meal. Nondenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis was used to separate LDL particles according to size. RESULTS: oxLD- Lab levels increased according to apoE phenotype in the following order: E2 < E3 < E4 (p = 0.004, ANOVA). The postprandial response of triglycerides, the size of LDL particles and the concentration of LDL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol did not differ between apoE phenotypes, and the use of these variables as covariates did not change the statistically significant difference in oxLDLab levels between apoE phenotypes (p = 0.01, ANCOVA). oxLDLab levels did not differ between the patient and control groups. CONCLUSION: We found an association between apoE allele epsilon2 and decreased levels of oxLDLab, which was independent of the postprandial response of triglycerides, the size of LDL particles and plasma LDL and HDL cholesterol levels. The mechanism by which apoE affects oxidation of LDL remains unknown.     

A spoonful of sugar makes the melanoma go: the role of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in melanoma metastasis

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) have been shown to regulate signaling in many systems and are of increasing interest in cancer. While these are not the only sugars to drive melanoma metastasis, HSPGs play important roles in driving metastatic signaling cascades in melanoma. The ability of these proteins to modulate ligand-receptor interactions in melanoma has been quite understudied. Recent data from several groups indicate the importance of these ligands in modulating key signaling pathways including Wnt and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the structure and function of these proteoglycans and their role in melanoma. Understanding how HSPGs modulate signaling in melanoma could lead to new therapeutic approaches via the dampening or heightening of key signaling pathways.     

Effect of almond skin polyphenolics and quercetin on human LDL and apolipoprotein B-100 oxidation and conformation

Almond skin polyphenolics (ASP) and vitamin C (VC) or E (VE) inhibit the Cu²⁺-induced generation of conjugated dienes in human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in a synergistic manner. However, the mechanism(s) by which this synergy occurs is unknown. As modification of apolipoprotein (apo) B-100 is an early, critical step in LDL oxidation, we examined the effects of combining ASP or quercetin and antioxidant vitamins on the oxidation of this moiety as well as on the alteration of LDL conformation and electronegativity (LDL−). In a dose-dependent manner, ASP (0.12–2.0 μmol/L gallic acid equivalents) decreased tryptophan (Trp) oxidation by 6.7–75.7%, increased the generalized polarity (Gp) of LDL by 21.0–81.5% at 90 min and reduced the ratio of LDL− to total LDL (tLDL) by 38.2–83.8% at 5 h. The actions of ASP on these parameters were generally additive to those of VC and VE. However, a 10–25% synergy of ASP plus VC in protecting apo B-100 Trp against oxidation may result from their synergistic interaction in prolonging the lag time to oxidation. ASP and VE acted in synergy to reduce LDL−/tLDL by 24–43%. Quercetin's actions were similar to ASP, though more effective at inhibiting Trp oxidation. Thus, ASP and quercetin reduce the oxidative modification of apo B-100 and stabilize LDL conformation in a dose-dependent manner, acting in an additive or synergistic fashion with VC and VE.     

The kinetics of FGF-2 binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans and MAP kinase signaling

Binding of growth factors to specific cell surface receptors is the first step in initiating cell signaling cascades that ultimately result in diverse activities such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dimerization and phosphorylation of tyrosine kinase transmembrane receptors is the typical paradigm for this activation but, for many growth factors, cell surface interactions are not limited to a single receptor type. In particular, heparin-binding growth factors, such as fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), bind to heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG) on the cell surface and within the extracellular matrix (ECM), and these molecules have been viewed as accessory co-receptors serving to facilitate tyrosine kinase receptor binding. Recent studies, however, have indicated that HSPG can directly participate in signal transduction in response to FGF-2 binding. Thus, in the present study, we used mathematical modeling to examine whether the kinetics of formation of the various FGF-2 bound complexes on the cell surface correlate with the activation of the downstream mediators of FGF-2 response, Erk1/2. We find that FGF-2 binding to its receptor correlates well with Erk1/2 activation and that HSPG can modulate this response through its ability to stabilize these ligand receptor complexes. Moreover, we also observed that FGF-2 binding to HSPG correlates strongly with Erk1/2 activation under conditions where there is a loss of receptor activity, and we demonstrate that the relative amounts of signaling and non-signaling HSPG on the cell surface, as well as the presence of competing HSPG in the ECM, can impact the signal potential via this pathway. Thus, the selective regulation of specific HSPG might provide a mechanism for fine tuned modulation of heparin-binding growth factor signaling in cells where signal intensity and duration could direct cellular response toward growth, migration or differentiation.     

Investigating the effect of VEGF glycosylation on glycosaminoglycan binding and protein unfolding

VEGF165 binding to endothelial cells is potentiated by glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Here, we have investigated the impact of VEGF165 N-glycosylation on GAG binding. Although glycosylated VEGF165 bound to heparin with only slightly higher affinity than non-glycosylated VEGF165, the natural ligand heparan sulfate induced a conformational change only in the glycosylated protein. Unfolding studies of the VEGF proteins indicated a stabilising effect of heparin on the growth factor structure.     

The binding of human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor to heparin and heparan sulfate: importance of 2-O-sulfate groups and effect on its interaction with its receptor,GFRalpha1

We report ELISA studies of the glycosaminoglycan binding properties of recombinant human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). We demonstrate relatively high affinity binding as soluble heparin competes with an IC50 of 0.1 micro g/ml. The binding of GDNF to heparin is particularly dependent on the presence of 2-O-sulfate groups. Highly sulfated heparan sulfate is also an effective competitor for GDNF binding. We also show that heparin at low concentrations protects GDNF from proteolytic modification by an endoprotease and also promotes the binding of GDNF to its receptor polypeptide, GFRalpha1. In both of these actions, 2-O-desulfated heparin is less effective. Considered overall, these findings provide strong support for a hypothesis that the bioactivity of GDNF during prenatal development is essentially dependent on the binding of this growth factor to 2-O-sulfate-rich heparin-related glycosaminoglycan.     

A small molecule inhibitor of PCSK9 that antagonizes LDL receptor binding via interaction with a cryptic PCSK9 binding groove

Proprotein convertase (PC) subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibits the clearance of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol from plasma by directly interacting with the LDL receptor (LDLR). As the interaction promotes elevated plasma LDL cholesterol levels and a predisposition to cardiovascular disease (CVD), it has attracted much interest as a therapeutic target. While anti-PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies have been successful in the treatment of hypercholesteremia by decreasing CVD risk, their high cost and a requirement for injection have prohibited widespread use. The advent of an orally bioavailable small molecule inhibitor of the PCSK9-LDLR interaction is an attractive alternative, however efforts have been tempered as the binding interface is unfavourable for binding by small organic molecules. Despite its challenging nature, we report herein the discovery of compound 3f as a small molecule inhibitor of PCSK9. The kinase inhibitor nilotinib emerged from a computational screen that was applied to identify compounds that may bind to a cryptic groove within PCSK9 and proximal to the LDLR-binding interface. A subsequent in vitro PCSK9-LDLR binding assay established that nilotinib was a bona fide but modest inhibitor of the interaction (IC₅₀ = 9.8 µM). Through multiple rounds of medicinal chemistry, 3f emerged as a lead-like molecule by demonstrating disruption of the PCSK9-LDLR interaction at nanomolar levels in vitro (IC₅₀ = 537 nM) with no inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ > 10 µM) against a small panel of kinases. Compound 3f restored LDL uptake by liver cells at sub-micromolar levels and demonstrated excellent bioavailability when delivered subcutaneously in mice. Most significantly, compound 3f lowered total cholesterol levels in the plasma of wild-type mice, thereby providing proof-of-concept that the notion of a small molecule inhibitor against PCSK9 is therapeutically viable.     

Activation of signaling pathways by putative scavenger receptor class A (SR-A) ligands requires CD14 but not SR-A

Macrophage scavenger class A type I and type II receptors (SR-A) are trimeric, integral membrane glycoproteins that bind an unusually broad array of macromolecular ligands. These ligands include modified proteins and lipoproteins, nucleic acids, and a variety of plant and microbial cell wall constituents, such as fucoidan and lipoteichoic acid. Early studies of SR-A functions indicated that the receptors bound, internalized, and degraded their ligands without provoking any macrophage activating signaling events. More recent studies have provided evidence that several SR-A ligands can activate macrophage gene expression via utilization of a receptor-linked, PI3-kinase pathway. To investigate the role of SR-A in engaging signal transduction events, we employed macrophages taken from mice lacking these receptors. Using either fucoidan or lipoteichoic acid, we confirm that both ligands stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation of PI3-kinase and production of modest levels of the cytokine, TNFalpha. However, macrophages taken from SR-A null mice did not differ from wild type macrophages in these responses, indicating that these signaling events arise independently of SR-A activity. Employing mice lacking CD14, a GPI anchored receptor that binds bacterial lipopolysaccharide and signals via activation of Toll-like receptors, we show that the fucoidan and lipoteichoic acid responses are largely abrogated when CD14 is absent. These data do not provide support for direct SR-A involvement in signal transduction events and suggest that the early characterization of these receptors as initiators of a non-phlogistic, pathogen clearance pathway was correct.