Evidence for heterodimeric nature of calpain molecules as studied by cross-linking modification

Purified calpain I and calpain II from porcine erythrocytes and kidney were cross-linked with a bifunctional reagent, disuccinimidyl suberate, and the cross-linked products were analyzed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The major product had a molecular mass of 105 kDa, while the starting materials were resolved into 80-kDa and 30-kDa subunits. The cross-linking in the presence of 2 mM Ca2+ yielded several higher-molecular-weight species. The cross-linked products were shown to contain both the 80-kDa and 30-kDa proteins by means of immunoblotting with antibodies monospecific for the respective subunits, suggesting that the original calpain molecule existed in solution as an 80-kDa plus 30-kDa heterodimer and that Ca2+ induced closer association of these heterodimeric molecules.     

Ca2+-dependent proteolysis of the Ah receptor

We previously reported (J. Biol. Chem. (1986) 261, 6352-6465) that the photoaffinity ligand for the Ah receptor, [125I]-2-azido-3-iodo-7,8-dibromodibenzo-p-dioxin, upon incubation with the liver cytosol fraction from C57BL/6 mice, labeled in a 1:1 ratio two peptides that had apparent molecular masses of 95 and 70 kDa and similar proteolytic fragmentation patterns. In the cytosolic fraction of Hepa 1 cells, a cloned murine hepatoma cell line, the product of photoaffinity labeling is almost exclusively a 95-kDa peptide which is rapidly hydrolyzed by a Ca2+-dependent proteinase to a 70-kDa peptide as well as other fragments. Thus, the ligand binding unit of the Ah receptor in C57BL/6 mouse liver and Hepa 1 cell is a 95-kDa peptide, and the 70-kDa fragment is a proteolytic artifact. The Ca2+-dependent proteinase which hydrolyzes the 95-kDa peptide has the properties of calpain II: (i) an absolute requirement for Ca2+, with maximal activity at 0.5 to 1.0 mM Ca2+; (ii) a pH optimum of 7.5 to 8.0; (iii) inhibition by EDTA, iodoacetamide, leupeptin and L-trans-epoxysuccinylleucylamido(4-guanidino)butane, but not by soybean trypsin inhibitor, aprotinin, or phenylmethanesufonyl fluoride. Upon chromatographic separation of the liver cytosol of C57BL/6 mice on DEAE-Sephacel, Ca2+-dependent proteinase activity (using casein or the labeled 95-kDa peptide as substrates) elutes with 0.25 M NaCl, and a specific proteinase inhibitor elutes with 0.15 M NaCl. Ca2+-dependent proteinase activity that hydrolyzes the 95-kDa peptide is found in the liver cytosols of several mammalian species.     

The endoplasmic reticulum chaperone glycoprotein GRP94 with Ca(2+)-binding and antiapoptotic properties is a novel proteolytic target of calpain during etoposide-induced apoptosis.

GRP94 is a 94-kDa chaperone glycoprotein with Ca(2+)-binding properties. We report here that during apoptosis induced by the topoisomerase II inhibitor etoposide, a fraction of GRP94 associated with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane undergoes specific proteolytic cleavage, coinciding with the activation of the caspase CPP32 and initiation of DNA fragmentation. In vivo, inhibitors of caspases able to block etoposide-induced apoptosis can only partially protect GRP94 from proteolytic cleavage, whereas complete inhibition is observed with calpain inhibitor I but not with the proteasome inhibitor. In vitro, GRP94 is not a substrate for CPP32; rather, it can be completely cleaved by calpain, a Ca(2+)-regulated protease. The cleavage of GRP94 by calpain is Ca(2+)-dependent and generates a discrete polypeptide of 80 kDa. In contrast, calpain has no effect on other stress proteins such as GRP78 or HSP70. Further, immunohistochemical staining reveals specific co-localization of GRP94 with calpain in the perinuclear region following etoposide treatment. We further showed that reduction of GRP94 by antisense decreased cell viability in etoposide-treated Jurkat cells. Our studies provide new evidence that the cytoprotective GRP94, as in the case of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, can be targets of proteolytic cleavage themselves during the apoptotic process.     

Binding of calpain fragments to calpastatin

Their cDNA-derived amino acid sequences predict that the 80-kDa subunits of the micromolar and millimolar Ca(2+)-requiring forms of the Ca(2+)-dependent proteinase (mu- and m-calpain, respectively) each consist of four domains and that the 28-kDa subunit common to both mu- and m-calpain consists of two domains. The calpains were allowed to autolyze to completion, and the autolysis products were separated and were characterized by using gel permeation chromatography, calpastatin affinity chromatography, and sequence analysis. Three major fragments were obtained after autolysis of either calpain. The largest fragment (34 kDa for mu-calpain, 35 kDa for m-calpain) contains all of domain II, the catalytic domain, plus part of domain I of the 80-kDa subunit of mu- or m-calpain. This fragment does not bind to calpastatin, a competitive inhibitor of the calpains, and has no proteolytic activity in either the absence or presence of Ca2+. The second major fragment (21 kDa for mu-calpain and 22 kDa for m-calpain) contains domain IV, the calmodulin-like domain, plus approximately 50 amino acids from domain III of the 80-kDa subunit of mu- or m-calpain. The third major fragment (18 kDa) contains domain VI, the calmodulin-like domain of the 28-kDa subunit. The second and third major fragments bind to a calpastatin affinity column in the presence of Ca2+ and are eluted with EDTA. The second and third fragments are noncovalently bound, so the 80- and 28-kDa subunits of the intact calpain molecules are noncovalently bound at domains IV and VI. After separation in 1 M NaSCN, the 28-kDa subunit binds completely to calpastatin, approximately 30-40% of the 80-kDa subunit of mu-calpain binds to calpastatin, and the 80-kDa subunit of m-calpain does not bind to calpastatin in the presence of 1 mM Ca2+.     

Identification of both calpains I and II in nucleated chicken erythrocytes

Chicken erythrocytes were found to contain two species of calpains which differ in elution profile from DEAE-cellulose and in Ca2+ requirement. After partial purification, one of them was half-maximally activated by 10 microM Ca2+ and the other by 180 microM Ca2+. The low- and high-Ca2+-requiring proteases cross-reacted only with the respective monospecific antibodies for mammalian calpain I and calpain II, respectively. Approximately 5 times more calpain I than calpain II is present in chicken erythrocytes. By immunoelectrophoretic blot analysis, both calpains I and II from chicken erythrocytes were proved to be heterodimers composed of 76 and 28 kDa, and 80 and 28 kDa subunits, respectively. Our present finding that the heavy subunit of calpain I is smaller than that of calpain II is noteworthy, since the opposite is known to be true of various mammalian calpains. An immunological study has revealed that the calpain I newly found in chicken erythrocytes is not derived from calpain II. Thus, the co-existence of calpains I and II in one animal species also holds in chickens, contrary to the previously advocated notion that chickens have only one type of calpain.     

Calpain I remains intact and intracellular during platelet activation. Immunochemical measurements with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies.

As a step towards understanding the physiological function of calpain (Ca2+-activated neutral proteinase, EC 3.4.22.17) in blood platelets, and in view of some suggestions that calpain is transferred to the platelet external surface during platelet activation, the enzyme was studied with immunochemical methods in resting and thrombin-activated cells. (1) A mouse IgG1 monoclonal antibody was prepared which binds strongly only to the denatured large subunit of human calpain I, and weakly to that of human calpain II. A polyclonal antibody raised against rat calpain II was available which, apart from binding strongly to rat calpain II, binds to the large subunits of human calpain I and II about equally. (2) With these antibodies, it was found that calpain could be detected in fixed platelets in suspension only after permeabilization with 0.1% saponin, and could not be detected on the exterior surface of resting or of activated platelets, or in the supernatant media of these platelets. It was concluded that calpain is not significantly externalized during platelet activation. (3) Immunoblotting showed that conversion of the larger calpain I subunit from 80 kDa into 76-78 kDa occurred only when thrombin-activated platelets were stirred to permit aggregation, and did not occur during unstirred thrombin activation. Although an action of calpain in the 80 kDa form on possible platelet substrates such as cytoskeletal proteins cannot be excluded, calpain is certainly not present as the 76-78 kDa form, which is assumed to be its active form, until aggregation is initiated.     

Ca2+-protease--an enzyme of the metabolism of cytoskeletal proteins in the olfactory membrane of vertebrates

Two forms of Ca(++)-activated protease (calpain I and calpain II) associated with an endogenous inhibitor (calpastatin) were detected in a cytosolic fraction of the olfactory tissue of vertebrates (pig, rat). Using ion exchange chromatography on DEAE-cellulose column, calpain I is divided into 2 peaks (eluting by 0.07-0.15 and 0.22-0.25 M NaCl), and calpain II is eluted by 0.35-0.40 M NaCl. The calpain activity was detected in fractions eluted by 0.1-0.17 M NaCl. The Ca(++)-activated protease was demonstrated also in a fraction of cytoskeleton of olfactory tissue insoluble in a 1% solution of Triton X-100. The activity can be detected by Ca(++)-dependent destruction of exogenous substrate (casein), and by Ca(++)-dependent degradation of cytoskeletal endogenous proteins (16, 18 and 20 kDa), of which one may be calmodulin.     

The calpain-calpastatin system in mammalian cells: properties and possible functions.

All mammalian cells contain a calcium-dependent proteolytic system, composed by a proteinase, calpain, and an inhibitor, calpastatin. In some cell types an activator protein has also been identified. Moreover, two calpain isoforms, distinguishable on the basis of a different calcium requirement, can be present in a single cell. Both calpain forms are heterodimers composed of a heavy subunit (80 kDa) that contains the catalytic site and a smaller (regulatory?) subunit (30 kDa). Calpain I expresses full activity at 10-50 microM Ca2+, whereas calpain II requires calcium concentrations in the millimolar range. The removal by autoproteolysis of a fragment from the N-terminus of both calpain subunits generates a proteinase form that can express catalytic activity at concentrations of Ca2+ close to the physiological range. This process is significantly accelerated in the presence of cell membranes or phospholipid vesicles. Calpastatin, the specific inhibitor of calpain, prevents activation and the expression of catalytic activity of calpain. It is in itself a substrate of the proteinase and undergoes a degradation process which correlates with the general mechanism of regulation of the intracellular proteolytic system. The natural calpain activator specifically acts on calpain II isoform, by reducing the Ca2+ required for the autoproteolytic activation process. Based on the general properties of the calpain-calpastatin system and on the substrate specificity, its role in the expression of specific cell functions can be postulated.     

Calcium-activated neutral proteases (calpains) are carbohydrate binding proteins

Calcium-activated neutral proteases (calpain, EC 3.4.22.17) bind to agarose matrices (Bio-Gel A-150m, Sepharose 4B, and Ultrogel AcA 34) with high affinity in the presence of calcium. 6-O-beta-Galactopyranosyl-D-galactose, a disaccharide which closely resembles the repeating unit of the agarose matrices, completely blocks the binding of calpains and can release agarose-bound enzymes in the presence of calcium. At least 1 microM level of free calcium is required for binding. Other calcium binding proteins, including calmodulin, calpastatin, casein, and neurofilament proteins, fail to bind under the same conditions. Both calpain I and calpain II can be readily purified from crude enzyme preparations by agarose chromatography in the presence of calcium and leupeptin. Agarose-bound enzymes are eluted with calcium-free solutions or can be released in the presence of calcium by 1% Triton X-100, but not by 1 M urea or 20% ethylene glycol. Enzymes eluted from agarose are activated, as evidenced by the appearance of faster migrating forms (76 and 78 kDa) of the 80-kDa catalytic subunit of calpain I upon electrophoresis and by the increased sensitivity of calpain II to activation by micromolar levels of calcium. The electrophoretic migration of the 30-kDa regulatory subunit is, however, unaltered in enzyme fractions eluted from an agarose column. When the enzyme subunits are dissociated in 1 M NaSCN, only the 30-kDa subunit binds to the agarose matrix. Furthermore, neither calpain I nor calpain II binds to agarose when their 30-kDa subunit is autocatalyzed to an 18-kDa fragment, indicating that the NH2-terminal of the 30-kDa subunit is important for the binding of calpains to an agarose matrix.     

Further characterization of calpain-mediated proteolysis of the human erythrocyte plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase

The membrane-bound form and a solubilized and purified form of the Ca2+-ATPase from human erythrocyte have been proteolyzed under controlled conditions by highly purified Ca2+-dependent neutral cysteine-protease, calpain I, in the absence and in the presence of the calmodulin-calcium complex. In the absence of calmodulin the 136-kDa enzyme was transformed into a group of fragments of 125-124 kDa, followed by the slower formation of a second group of fragments of 82-80 kDa. These heterogeneous fragments were capable of forming an acylphosphate intermediate. The 125- and 82-kDa minor components of each heterogeneous group of fragments (125-124 and 82-80 kDa) were capable of binding calmodulin, whereas the 124- and the 80-kDa major components did not. In the presence of calmodulin, however, the native enzyme was transformed into a 127-kDa fragment followed by the slower formation of an 85-kDa fragment. Both fragments (127 and 85 kDa) formed an acylphosphate intermediate and were capable of binding calmodulin. The presence of calmodulin during calpain action effectively protected the Ca2+-ATPase from proteolytic activation (K.K.W. Wang, A. Villalobo, and B.D. Roufogalis (1988) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 260, 696-704) and prevented the formation of the calmodulin-insensitive 124- and 80-kDa fragments. Smaller fragments not capable of forming the acylphosphate intermediate were also produced, in particular a 39-37 kDa doublet band retaining the capacity to bind calmodulin. In contrast to the membrane-bound form, the purified form of the Ca2+-ATPase was proteolyzed by calpain at a slower rate.     

Biochemical Characterization of Annexins I and II Isolated from Pig Nervous Tissue

Five proteins having molecular masses of 90, 67, 37, 36, and 32 kDa (p90, p67, p37, p36, and p32, respectively) were identified in the particulate fractions of pig brain cortex and pig spinal cord prepared in the presence of 0.2 mM Ca2+ and further purified using a protocol previously described for the purification of calpactins. Proteins p90, p37, and p36 are related to annexins I and II. Annexin II, represented by p90, is found as an heterotetramer, composed of two heavy chains of 36 kDa and two light chains of 11 kDa, and as a monomer of 36 kDa. Protein p37, which differs immunologically from p36, is a monomer and could be related to annexin I. All three proteins are Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipid- and F-actin-binding proteins; they are phosphorylated on a serine and on a tyrosine residue by protein kinases associated with synaptic plasma membranes. Purified p36 monomer and p36 heterotetramer proteins bind to actin at millimolar Ca2+ concentrations. The stoichiometry of p36 binding to F-actin at saturation is 1:2, corresponding to one tetramer or monomer of calpactin for two actin monomers (KD, 3 x 10(-6) M). Synaptic plasma membranes supplemented with the monomeric or tetrameric forms of p36 phosphorylate the proteins on a serine residue. The monomer is phosphorylated on a serine residue by a Ca(2+)-independent protein kinase, whereas the heterotetramer is phosphorylated on a serine residue and a tyrosine residue by Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinases. Antibodies to brain p37 and p36 together with antibodies to lymphocytes lipocortins 1 and 2 were used to follow the distribution of these proteins in nervous tissues. Polypeptides of 37, 34, and 36 kDa cross-react with these antibodies. Anti-p37 and antilipocortin 1 cross-react on the same 37- and 34-kDa polypeptides; anti-p36 and antilipocortin 2 cross-react only on the 36-kDa polypeptides.     

Isolation of Ca2+ sensitive proteins linked to the membrane fraction of the brain cortex and the spinal cord in pigs

Four Ca2+-sensitive proteins of respective subunit molecular weights 67 kDa, 37 kDa, 36 kDa and 32 kDa were purified from pig brain and spinal cord. Associated to the particulate fraction at millimolar concentrations of free Ca2+, they were solubilized using an EGTA-containing buffer and purified by a selective Ca2+-dependent precipitation. The 36 kDa protein is present in the tissues in a tetrameric form of (2 X 36 kDa + 2 X 13 kDa) and in a monomeric form. These proteins with the 37 kDa protein share the functional properties of the two well-known Ca2+-binding proteins, named calpactin I and calpactin II; they were able to interact with F-actin, brain spectrin (fodrin) and phosphatidylserine-liposomes in a Ca2+-dependent manner. The 67 kDa protein depolymerizes the actin filament in presence of Ca2+, it also binds to tubulin and to the neurofilament subunit NF-70, but not to brain spectrin. The 32 kDa protein does not share any association with F-actin and brain spectrin.     

Distribution of calpains and calpastatin in human blood cells

The occurrence and molecular sizes of calpains and calpastatin in the lysates of human erythrocytes, platelets, lymphocytes/monocytes, and polymorphonuclear cells were studied by immunoelectrophoretic blot analysis. The basic uniformity among these cells of the 85-kDa and 83-kDa heavy subunits of low- and high-Ca2+-requiring calpains I and II, respectively, and of the 29-kDa light subunit was confirmed. Molecular diversity of calpastatin species, ranging from 70 kDa to 107 kDa, among different blood cells was also shown. The obtained data are consistent with those known for other animal tissues, thus settling hitherto uncertain or rather controversial issues on the distribution of calpains and calpastatin in human blood cells.     

Guanine nucleotide regulation of phospholipase C activity in permeabilized rabbit neutrophils. Inhibition by pertussis toxin and sensitization to submicromolar calcium concentrations.

Calpastatin, the inhibitor protein acting specifically on calpain (EC 3.4.22.17; Ca2+-dependent cysteine proteinase), is known to be widely distributed in mammalian and avian cells. Two different molecular species of calpastatin were isolated and purified to homogeneity from pig heart muscle and from pig erythrocytes, and shown to be of 107 kDa and 68 kDa respectively on SDS/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis. Both calpastatins had very similar amino acid compositions when expressed as mol per cent of the residues, differed by only 0.1 pH unit in their isoelectric points, and showed immunological cross-reactivity. One molecule of the 107 kDa species could bind approx. 8 calpain molecules, whereas the 68 kDa inhibitor could bind approx. 5 calpain molecules. These findings suggest similar protein structures of the 107 kDa and 68 kDa calpastatins, each being composed of extended multidomains, with unit inhibitor domains aligned along the polypeptide chain of the molecule. The present study does not conclude, however, whether or not the 68 kDa calpastatin found in erythrocytes is a derived product from the 107 kDa species, which is present as such in heart muscle.     

Truncation and activation of calcineurin A by calpain I in Alzheimer disease brain

A disturbance of calcium homeostasis is believed to play an important role in the neurodegeneration of the brains of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients, but the molecular pathways by which it contributes to the disease are not well understood. Here we studied the activation of two major Ca(2+)-regulated brain proteins, calpain and calcineurin, in AD brain. We found that calpain I is activated, which in turn cleaves and activates calcineurin in AD brain. Mass spectrometric analysis indicated that the cleavage of calcineurin by calpain I is at lysine 501, a position C-terminal to the autoinhibitory domain, which produces a 57-kDa truncated form. The 57-kDa calcineurin maintains its Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependence of the phosphatase activity, but the phosphatase activity is remarkably activated upon truncation. The cleavage and activation of calcineurin correlate to the number of neurofibrillary tangles in human brains. These findings suggest that the overactivation of calpain I and calcineurin may mediate the role of calcium homeostatic disturbance in the neurodegeneration of AD.     

Glutamate Neurotoxicity Is Independent of Calpain I Inhibition in Primary Cultures of Cerebellar Granule Cells

Glutamate-induced neurotoxicity and calpain activity were studied in primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule neurons and glial cells. Calpain activation, as monitored by quantitative immunoblotting of spectrin, required micromolar concentrations of Ca2+ in neuronal homogenates (calpain I) and millimolar Ca2+ concentrations in glial homogenates (calpain II). Glutamate-induced toxicity and calpain activation were observed in neuronal, but not in glial, cultures. In neurons, calpain I activation by glutamate was dose-dependent and persisted after withdrawal of neurotoxic doses of glutamate. Natural (GM1) and semisynthetic (LIGA4) gangliosides or the glutamate receptor blocker MK-801 prevented calpain I activation and delayed neuronal death elicited by glutamate. GM1 and LIGA4 had no effect on calpain I activity in neuronal homogenates, however. Furthermore, two calpain I inhibitors (leupeptin and N-acetyl-Leu-Leu-norleucinal) prevented glutamate-induced spectrin degradation, but failed to affect glutamate neurotoxicity. These results thus suggest that glutamate-induced neurotoxicity is independent of calpain I activation.     

Identification of two calpastatin forms in rat skeletal muscle and their susceptibility to digestion by homologous calpains

Two forms of calpastatin, differing in their specificity for the homologous calpain isozymes I and II, have been separated from rat skeletal muscle extracts and purified to homogeneity. Calpastatin I, the first form to elute in chromatography on DE32, is more effective against calpain I, while calpastatin II is more effective as an inhibitor of calpain II. Based on their molecular mass (approximately 105 kDa) both calpastatin forms belong to the high molecular mass class found in muscles of other animal species (Murachi, T., 1989, Biochem. Int. 18, 263-294). For calpain I, which is active with low (mu-M) concentrations of Ca2+, maximum inhibition with either calpastatin form was observed over a wide range of Ca2+ concentrations. With calpain II, which requires high (mM) concentrations of Ca2+ for activity, maximum inhibition required Ca2+ concentrations above 1 mM. Both calpastatin forms were found to be highly sensitive to degradation by calpain II, but almost completely resistant to degradation by calpain I. Degradation of calpastatin by calpain II is competitively inhibited by the addition of a calpain substrate. Isovaleryl carnitine (IVC), an intermediate product of L-leucine catabolism, previously demonstrated to be a potent and specific activator of rat skeletal muscle calpain II (Pontremoli, S., Melloni, E., Viotti, P. L., Michetti, M., Di Lisa, F., and Siliprandi, N., 1990. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 167, 373-380) greatly enhances the rate of degradation of calpastatins by calpain II. IVC, which decreases the Ca2+ requirement for maximal calpain II activity, also decreases the concentration of Ca2+ required for digestion of the inhibitor. For calpain II, regulation by either calpastatins may occur only in the presence of high [Ca2+].     

Recombinant 70-kDa protein from the amino-terminal region of rat fibronectin inhibits binding of fibronectin to cells and bacteria

Binding of fibronectin to substrate-attached cells and to Staphylococcus aureus is mediated by the amino-terminal 70-kDa portion of fibronectin. The 70-kDa amino-terminus is composed of nine type I and two type II internal homology units, each containing two intrachain disulfide bonds. The exact structural features of the 70-kDa amino-terminus that are necessary for binding to cells and bacteria are not known. We characterized a recombinant 70-kDa protein from the amino-terminus of rat fibronectin using a baculovirus expression system. Recombinant 70-kDa (r70kDa) protein was easily purified in high amounts from the conditioned medium by affinity chromatography on gelatin-agarose. Secretion was much less when N-linked glycosylation was blocked by tunicamycin. Like the native fragment, the r70kDa protein contains intrachain disulfide bonds. In addition, the r70kDa protein was indistinguishable from the nonrecombinant 70-kDa fragment in its ability to compete for binding sites on fibroblasts and S. aureus. Thus, the r70kDa protein retains the important functional characteristics of the native fragment. This expression system is well adapted to studying the structural features important for the interaction of 70-kDa protein with cells.     

Dissociation and aggregation of calpain in the presence of calcium

Calpain is a heterodimeric Ca(2+)-dependent cysteine protease consisting of a large (80 kDa) catalytic subunit and a small (28 kDa) regulatory subunit. The effects of Ca(2+) on the enzyme include activation, aggregation, and autolysis. They may also include subunit dissociation, which has been the subject of some debate. Using the inactive C105S-80k/21k form of calpain to eliminate autolysis, we have studied its disassociation and aggregation in the presence of Ca(2+) and the inhibition of its aggregation by means of crystallization, light scattering, and sedimentation. Aggregation, as assessed by light scattering, depended on the ionic strength and pH of the buffer, on the Ca(2+) concentration, and on the presence or absence of calpastatin. At low ionic strength, calpain aggregated rapidly in the presence of Ca(2+), but this was fully reversible by EDTA. With Ca(2+) in 0.2 m NaCl, no aggregation was visible but ultracentrifugation showed that a mixture of soluble high molecular weight complexes was present. Calpastatin prevented aggregation, leading instead to the formation of a calpastatin-calpain complex. Crystallization in the presence of Ca(2+) gave rise to crystals mixed with an amorphous precipitate. The crystals contained only the small subunit, thereby demonstrating subunit dissociation, and the precipitate was highly enriched in the large subunit. Reversible dissociation in the presence of Ca(2+) was also unequivocally demonstrated by the exchange of slightly different small subunits between mu-calpain and m-calpain. We conclude that subunit dissociation is a dynamic process and is not complete in most buffer conditions unless driven by factors such as crystal formation or autolysis of active enzymes. Exposure of the hydrophobic dimerization surface following subunit dissociation may be the main factor responsible for Ca(2+)-induced aggregation of calpain. It is likely that dissociation serves as an early step in calpain activation by releasing the constraints upon protease domain I.