The “Bantu Clinic”: A Genealogy of the African Patient as Object and Effect of South African Clinical Medicine, 1930–1990

This paper is about power, medicine andthe identity of the African as a patient of westernmedicine. From a conventional perspective and asencoded in the current quest for wholeness thatcharacterises South African biomedical discourse, theAfrican patient – like any other patient – has alwaysexisted as an authentic and subjectified being, whosetrue attributes and experiences have been denied bythe mechanistic, reductionistic and ethnocentricpractices of clinical medicine. Against this liberalhumanist perspective on the body as ontologicallyindependent of power, this paper offers a Foucaultianreading of the African patient as – like any otherpatient – contingent upon the force relations immanentwithin and relayed through the clinical practices ofbiomedicine. A quintessential form of disciplinarymicro-power, these fabricate the most intimaterecesses of the human body as manageable objects ofmedical knowledge and social consciousness to makepossible the great control strategies of repression,segmentation and liberation that are the usual focusof conventional investigations into the place andfunction of medicine in society. Since the 1930s whenthe African body first emerged as a discrete object ofa secular clinical knowledge, these have repeatedlytransformed the attributes and identity of the Africanpatient, and the paper traces this archaeology ofSouth African clinical perception from then until the1990s to show how its quest for wholeness is not anend point of discovery or liberation, but merelyanother ephemeral crystallization of socio-medicalknowledge in a constantly changing force field ofdisciplinary power.     

Why the aristocrats were ‘heavy’ or how ethnopsychology legitimized inequality among the Tlingit

Conclusion Even a cursory look at the ethnographic literature on other Northwest Coast societies reveals some striking similarities with the Tlingit way of conceptualizing aristocrats as special persons. Thus the Kwakiutl referred to their chiefs as real or complete people, who were heavier than commoners. The Coast Tsimshian called their highest aristocrats real or ripe persons, in contrast to the low-ranking ones, who were described as unhealed or green. The Coast Tshimshian also referred to their chiefs as strong, heavy, and solid like a rock. The neighboring Gitksan contrasted the chiefs, described as people who were good and clean and stayed put, with the commoners, who were said to be dirty, ignorant, and always moving around. Because spirits of the dead liked to return to persons who were clean and showed respect by giving away wealth and feasts, there was considerable moral and practical pressure on the aristocrats to remain pure, train knowledgeable and clean heirs, and continue potlatching. Finally, among the Haida, rank was tied to a wider system of symbolic classification, associating aspects of food, space, clothing, ritual pollution and the ethic of industry with attributes of seniority.While some of the symbolic associations of aristocratic status are culture specific, others are present in several, if not all, of the NWC cultures. What we need is a comparative symbology of aristocratic status, which would combine the reanalysis of the existing ethnographic data with the introduction of some new materials that can still be obtained in the field. Such work would be the best tribute to Irving Goldman himself and to our common illustrious ancestors—Franz Boas and Marcel Mauss.Sergei Kan is Professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth College.     

Concluding remarks

On the basis of symposium contributions onChlorella, Hibbertia, Eucalyptus, Ambrosia and on numerical approaches some fundamental problems of (bio)systematics, evolution, and taxonomic categories are discussed: Methods available for analysing affinities; conflicting evidence from phenetic, biochemical, cytogenetic and other analyses; further classification problems in cases of intermediacy, etc. While sibs of various levels and their natural hierarchy often can be objectively defined, this appears impossible for particular taxonomic levels itself (e. g. species). A single objective taxonomic system of organisms is unrealistic. Certain guiding lines for relative and practicable concepts of species and genus are proposed.Presented at the symposium Speciation and the Species Concept during the XIIth International Botanical Congress, Leningrad, July 8, 1975.     

Characterization of gangliosides from Ehrlich ascites tumour cells and their variants

Differences in the nature of the gangliosides present in two types of Ehrlich ascites tumour (EAT) cells, the adherent and non-adherent EAT cells, were studied. Gangliosides were isolated by DEAE Sephadex column chromatography and analysed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). The non-adherent EAT (na-EAT) cells which grow in the peritoneal cavity of mice were selected for growth on basement membrane and tissue culture plastic to give the adherent EAT (a-EAT) cells. na-EAT cells contained 1.57 nmol lipid-bound sialic acid per mg protein and at least 12 different gangliosides, including major gangliosides such as GM3, GM2, GM1, GD3, GD1a and GT1b. On the other hand, the ganglioside pattern of a-EAT cells differed significantly from that of na-EAT cells, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The content of lipid-bound sialic acid in a-EAT cells was only 0.24 nmol per mg of protein. The gangliosides in a-EAT cells were characterized as GD1a and trisialogangliosides and, significantly, a-EAT cells did not contain monosialogangliosides. Neutral glycolipids were isolated from both cell lines and their patterns were compared. In contrast to the gangliosides pattern, their neutral glycolipid patterns were similar. Glucosylceramide and lactosylceramide were the major components in both types of cells. In addition to na- and a-EAT cells, a-EAT cells were passaged in mice by intraperitoneal injection, giving rise to a third variant (c/m EAT cells). We analysed the gangliosides in c/m EAT cells to determine whether there was a change in the ganglioside pattern found in na-EAT cells. After repeated passage of c/m EAT cells in mice, the pattern of gangliosides shifted to that of na-EAT cells. Alterations of ganglioside composition may be associated with the growth environment of the murine peritoneal cavity; alternatively, a selection process may have occurred.Abbreviations EAT cells Ehrlich ascites tumour cells - na-EAT cells non-adherent EAT cells - a-EAT cells adherent EAT cells - c/m EAT cells cultured a-EAT cells passaged in mice - HPTLC high-performance thin-layer chromatography - PBS 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.2, containing 0.15 M NaCl - EDTA ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid - TFA trifluoroacetic acid - TG thioglycollate - Cer ceramide (N-fatty acyl sphingosine) - GM3 NeuAc2-3Gal1-4Glc-Cer - GM2 GalNAc1-4(NeuAc2-3)Gal1-4Glc-Cer - GM1a Gal1-3GalNAc1-4(NeuAc2-3)Gal1-4Glc-Cer - GD3 NeuAc2-8NeuAc2-3Gal1-4Glc-Cer - GD1a NeuAc2-3Gal1-3GalNAc1-4(NeuAc2-3)Gal1-4Glc-Cer - GT1b NeuAc2-3Gal1-3GalNAc1-4(NeuAc2-8NeuAc2-3)Gal1-4Glc-Cer - LacCer Gal1-4Glc-Cer - Gb3 Gal1-4Gal1-4Glc-Cer - Gb4 GalNAc1-4Gal1-4Gal1-4Glc-Cer This paper is dedicated to my esteemed colleague, Sen-itiroh Hakomori on the occasion of his 65th birthday.     

The chromosomal localization of human β-galactosidase revisited: a locus for β-galactosidase on human chromosome 3 and for its protective protein on human chromosome 22

Summary A series of man-Chinese hamster and man-mouse somatic cell hybrids was investigated to study the localization of the genes coding for the human lysosomal enzyme -galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23) and for its protective protein. Using a monoclonal antibody, raised against human placental -galactosidase, it was observed that the structural locus for the -galactosidase polypeptide is located on chromosome 3. The nature of the involvement of chromosome 22 in the expression of human -galactosidase was elucidated by metabolic labelling of the hybrids with radioactive amino acids, immunoprecipitation with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against -galactosidase, followed by analysis via gel electrophoresis and fluorography.The data show that the presence of chromosome 22 coincides with the presence of a 32 kd protein. This polypeptide, the protective protein was previously shown to be intimately associated with human -galactosidase. In addition, the protective protein was found to be essential for the in vivo stability of -galactosidase by aggregating -galactosidase monomers into high molecular weight multimes. Both chromosome 3 and 22 are therefore necessary to obtain normal levels og -galactosidase activity in human cells.     

Microaerophily

Objections to previous definitions of anaerobiosis and micro-aerophily are discussed, and a new definition of micro-aerophily is proposed. A survey of physiological characteristics of the micro-aerophilic bacterium Campylobacter sputorum spp. bubulus is given, and the concept of micro-aerophily is illustrated by the results of a study on the oxygen metabolism and oxygen sensitivity of this bacterium.     

Morphological development and gibberellin production by different strains of Gibberella fujikuroi in shake flasks and bioreactor

Strain H-984 of G. fujikuroi grown for 38h in a shake flask with medium containing 20g glucose l^–1, 3g yeast extract l^–1, 2.5g NH4NO3 l^–1, 0.5g KH2PO4 l^–1, 0.1g MgSO4 l^–1, 1g CaCO₃ l^–1, and inoculated into a bioreactor with medium containing 60g glucose l^–1; 1g NH_4Cl l^–1; 3g KH2PO4 l^–1 and 1.5g MgSO₄ l^–1 produced 1100mg gibberellic acid l–1.     

Diversity of the mouse T cell receptor Cγ1 gene: structural analysis in C57BL/Ka

We have isolated an unusual T cell receptor chain cDNA clone (7.1) from a library made from RNA derived from adult thymus of C57BL/Ka mice. This cDNA clone corresponds to the appropriately processed C1 constant region exons preceded by 1.5 kb of J-C1 intron. The 7.1 coding region is extremely homologous to the C1 gene of BALB/c mice, differing at the protein level by a single deletion (alanine 139) and a single substitution. This latter change eliminates the sole N-linked sugar attachment site, providing a basis for strain-specific glycosylation patterns. The J-C1 intronic region contains two DNA segments (termed J1 and J2) that are highly reminiscent of joining (J) segments; both have potentially functional recombination and donor splice sequences flanking an open reading frame. Northern analysis suggests that 7.1 may be derived from a large, variable region-containing precursor.     

Regional and subcellular distribution of taurine-synthesizing enzymes in the rat central nervous system

The distribution of cysteine oxidase (CO) and cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase (CSD) was examined in 12 regions of the rat central nervous system (CNS). The distribution of CO activity, expressed as mol of cysteine sulfinate formed per h per g, was the following: hypothalamus, superior and inferior colliculi, 94–99 mol/h/g; olfactory bulbs, cerebral cortex, striatum, and hippocampus, 44–51 mol/h/g; cerebellum, 71 mol/h/g; pons-medula and spinal cord, 94 and 60 mol/h/g, respectively. The distribution of CSD activity expressed as mol of cysteine sulfinate decarboxylated per h per g was the following: hypothalamus and colliculi, 14–21 mol/h/g; olfactory bulbs, cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus, and cerebellum, 8–13 mol/h/g; pons-medulla, 7.3; and spinal cord, 3.6 mol/h/g. No CSD activity was detected in sciatic nerve. The subcellular distribution of CO and CSD activities was studied in hypothalamus, colliculi, and cerebral cortex. CO activity was localized in synaptosomes, mitochondria, and microsomes. CSD was primarily confined to the crude mitochondrial fraction and after subfraction, recovered mainly in the synaptosomal fraction.     

Secondary structural changes in the intact and the disulfide bridges cleaved beta-lactoglobulin A and B in solutions of urea, guanidine hydrochloride, and sodium dodecyl sulfate

The relative proportions of -helix, -sheet, and unordered form in -lactoglobulin A and B were examined in solutions of urea, guanidine, and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). In the curve-fitting method of circular dichroism (CD) spectra, the reference spectra of the corresponding structures determined by Chen et al. (1974) were modified essentially according to the secondary structure of -lactoglobulin B predicted by Creamer et al. (1983), i.e., that the protein has 17% -helix and 41% -sheet. The two variants showed no appreciable difference in structural changes. The reduction of disulfide bridges in the proteins increased -sheet up to 48% but did not affect the -helical proportion. The -helical proportions of nonreduced -lactoglobulin A and B were not affected below 2 M guanidine or below 3 M urea, but those of the reduced proteins began to decrease in much lower concentrations of these denaturants. By contrast, the -helical proportions of the nonreduced and reduced proteins increased to 40–44% in SDS. The -sheet proportions of both nonreduced and reduced proteins, which remained unaffected even in 6 M guanidine and 9 M urea, decreased to 24–25% in SDS.     

Purification and immunocytochemical localization of kafirins inSorghum bicolor (L. Moench) endosperm

Summary Kafirins are the storage proteins of sorghum and are found in protein bodies in the seed endosperm. They have been classified as -, -, and -kafirins according to differences in molecular weight, solubility, and structure. The kafirins were purified, amino acid composition was determined, and immunolocalization methods were used to determine the organization of the protein bodies and distribution of kafirins throughout the endosperm. All three groups of kafirins were low in lysine. -Kafirins and -kafirins were relatively high in cysteine, and -kafirins were relatively high in methionine. Transmission electron microscopy showed that protein bodies in the peripheral endosperm were spheroid with concentric rings and few darkly stained inclusions. In contrast, protein bodies of the central endosperm were irregularly shaped with a higher proportion of darkly stained material. The light staining regions of the protein bodies are composed primarily of -kafirins with minor portions of - and -kafirins. The dark staining regions, however, are composed primarily of - and -kafirins. Immunoelectron microscopy showed that protein bodies in the peripheral endosperm contain predominantly a-kafirin with minor amounts of - and -kafirin. Central endosperm protein bodies are also predominantly -kafirin, but have a higher proportion of -kafirin and -kafirin than the peripheral endosperm protein bodies.Abbreviations GAR-HRP Goat anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase - IgG immunoglobulin G - 2-ME 2-mercaptoethanol - SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - TBS Tris buffer saline - TBS-T Tris buffer saline with Tween - TBS-T-B Tris buffer saline with Tween and bovine serum albumin - TCA trichloroacetic acid - UV ultraviolet     

Carbohydrates of influenza virus. Structure of the oligosaccharides linked to asparagines 406 and 478 in the hemagglutinin of fowl plague virus,strain dutch

Fowl plague virus, strain Dutch, was metabolically labeled withd-[2-³H]mannose, or withd-[6-³H]glucosamine, and the small subunit (HA₂; 0.8 mg in total) of the viral hemagglutinin was isolated by preparative sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After proteolytic digestion, the radioactive oligosaccharides were sequentially liberated from the glycopeptides by treatment with different endo--N-acetylglucosaminidases and with peptide:N-glycosidase or, finally, by hydrazinolysis. In this manner, four groups of glycans could be obtained by consecutive gel filtrations and were subfractionated by HPLC. The structures of the individual oligosaccharides were analyzed by micromethylation, by acetolysis or by digestion with exoglycosidases. The major species amongst the high mannose glycans at Ans-406 of the viral glycopolypeptide were found to be Man1-2Man1-3(Man1-2Man1-6)Man1-6(Man1-2Man1-2Man1-3)Man1-4GlcNac1-4GlcNAc and Man1-3(Man1-2Man1-6)Man1-6(Man1-2Man1-2Man1-3)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc, while the complex glycans at Asn-478 are predominantly GlcNAc1-2Man1-3(GlcNAc1-2Man1-6)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc (lacking, in part, one of the outerN-acetylglucosamine residues) and GlcNAc1-2Man1-3(Gal1-4GlcNAc1-2Man1-6)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc.Abbreviation BSA bovine serum albumin - endo D (F,H) endo--N-acetyl-d-glucosaminidase D (F,H) - HA hemagglutinin (HA₁, large subunit of HA - HA₂ small subunit - FPV fowl plague virus - PNGase F peptide:N-glycosidase F - SDS sodium dodecylsulfate     

Are the different hypotheses on the emergence of life as different as they seem?

This paper calls attention to a philosophical presupposition, coined here the continuity thesis which underlies and unites the different, often conflicting, hypotheses in the origin of life field. This presupposition, a necessary condition for any scientific investigation of the origin of life problem, has two components. First, it contends that there is no unbridgeable gap between inorganic matter and life. Second, it regards the emergence of life as a highly probable process. Examining several current origin-of-life theories. I indicate the implicit or explicit role played by the continuity thesis in each of them. In addition, I identify the rivals of the thesis within the scientific community — the almost miracle camp. Though adopting the anti-vitalistic aspect of the continuity thesis, this camp regards the emergence of life as involving highly improbable events. Since it seems that the chemistry of the prebiotic stages and of molecular self-organization processes rules out the possibility that life is the result of a happy accident, I claim that the almost miracle view implies in fact, a creationist position.     

Interactions of Aβ(1–40) with Glycerophosphocholine and Intact Erythrocyte Membranes: Fluorescence and Circular Dichroism Studies

Deposition of amyloid peptide in human brain in the form of senile plaques is a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimers disease (AD). Levels of a phospholipid breakdown product, glycerophosphocholine (GPC), also increase in AD brain. The effect of GPC on amyloid (1–40) peptide (A) aggregation in PBS buffer was investigated by circular dichroism and fluoresence spectroscopy; interactions of A and GPC with the intact erythrocyte membrane was examined by fluoresence spectroscopy. Fluorescamine labeled A studies indicate GPC enhances A aggregation. CD spectroscopy reveals that A in the presence of GPC adopts 14% more -sheet structure than does A alone. Fluorescamine anisotropy measurements show that GPC and A interact in the phospholipid head-group region of the erythrocyte membrane. In summary, both soluble A and GPC insert into the phospholipid head-group region of the membrane where they interact leading to -sheet formation in soluble A which enhances A aggregation.     

On genetic components in autoimmunity: a critical review based on evolutionarily oriented rationality

The immune system furnishes the organism with the utmost effective defence mechanisms against foreign and changes in self without doing self-harm. However, optimized efficacy in the defence against the immense variety of foreign antigens generates a higher risk for inadvertent self challenge. Such inherent short-comings are the inevitable burden traded for the benefits of an optimally organized defence system. The central molecules involved in specific immune reactions include antigen receptors of B and T lymphocytes, and antigen-presenting proteins encoded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC; in man HLA). The genetics and evolution of these multigene families is discussed here with respect to their potential contributions to disturbances of self recognition. Simple molecular biological tools and procedures for efficiently screening the immunologically relevant genes are described.Dedicated to Professor Dr. U. Wolf on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Evolutionary origin of the class A and class C β-lactamases

Summary The protein sequences of 18 class A -lactamases and 2 class C -lactamases were analyzed to produce a rooted phylogenetic tree using the DD peptidase of Streptomyces R61 as an outgroup. This tree supports the penicillin-binding proteins as the most likely candidate for the ancestoral origin of the class A and class C -lactamases, these proteins diverging from a common evolutionary origin close to the DD peptidase. The actinomycetes are clearly shown as the origin of the class A -lactamases found in other non-actinomycete species. The tree also divides the -lactamases from the Streptomyces into two subgroups. One subgroup is closer to the DD peptidase root. The other Streptomyces subgroup shares a common branch point with the rest of the class A -lactamases, showing this subgroup as the origin of the non-actinomycete class A -lactamases. The non-actinomycete class A -lactamase phylogenetic tree suggests a spread of these -lactamases by horizontal transfer from the Streptomyces into the non-actinomycete gram-positive bacteria and thence into the gram-negative bacteria. The phylogenetic tree of the Streptomyces class A -lactamases supports the possibility that horizontal transfer of class A -lactamases occurred within the Streptomyces.     

Der „biologische Aufstieg“ und seine Kriterien

Zusammenfassung Die Arbeit stellt die Frage nach den Kriterien des fossil belegten Biologischen Aufstiegs der Organismenwelt, d.h. derjenigen Vervollkommnung, die sich nicht innerhalb des Rahmens eines gegebenen Bauplans hält, wie die Anpassungsvervollkommnung, sondern über verschiedenrangige Baupläne hinweg zu höheren Typen führt, z.B. von den Fischen über die Amphibien und Reptilien zu den Säugern bzw. Vögeln. Ausführlich werden zwei Gruppen von Kriterien besprochen, ihr Inhalt dargelegt und ihre Eindeutigkeit zur Charakterisierung des Biologischen Aufstiegs untersucht. Die erste Gruppe umfasst die Kriterien der zunehmenden Differenzierung und harmonischeren Integration. Diese legen die morphologisch-physiologische Differenzierung oder genauer die Ganzheit der Organismen zugrunde, d.h. ihre Vielheit in der Einheit. Die zweite Kriteriengruppe, nämlich zunehmende Umweltunabhängigkeit und zunehmende individuelle Autonomie, geht von den Beziehungen des Organismus zur Umwelt und zu andern Lebensformen aus und betont die Subsistenz der Individuen, d.h. ihr grösseres oder geringeres Losgelöstsein oder ihre Selbständigkeit. Da nun Ganzheit und Subsistenz die entscheidenden Elemente einer biologischen Definition des Individuums sind, lässt sich sagen, dass der Biologische Aufstieg eines Organismus um so höher ist, je stärker seine Ganzheit und Subsistenz und damit sein Individuumsein ist.Eindeutigkeit kommt allen genannten Kriterien nicht zu. Die Gründe für ihre Unschärfe sind verschiedener Art. Zunächst gibt es noch keine eindeutige und vollständige Definition des biologischen Individuums, so dass sich nicht eindeutig umreissen lässt, was einem Organismus eine stärkere oder weniger starke Individualität verleiht. Dann sind die Linien, über die sich Vervollkommnungen vollziehen und von denen die eine innerhalb des Bauplans bleibt (Anpassungsvervollkommnung), die andere aber über ihn hinausführt (Biologischer Aufstieg) so innig und in so eigenartiger Weise miteinander verflochten, dass sie sich nicht sauber scheiden und in ihren charakteristischen Merkmalen genau beschreiben lassen. Jeder Vertreter eines Bauplans, ganz gleich von welcher Ranghöhe, ist nämlich notwendig in eine Umwelt eingepasst und irgendwie spezialisiert. Es gibt keine Typen mit reinen Bauplanmerkmalen, die nach keiner Richtung hin eine Anpassungsvervollkommnung, sondern nur Merkmale des Biologischen Aufstiegs aufweisen. Schliesslich kennen wir fossil nur die Entfaltung oder Ausgestaltung der Grossbaupläne des Tierreichs, nämlich des Wirbeltierstammes und der verschiedenen Gruppen der Wirbellosen, nicht aber das Interessanteste und Wichtigste, nämlich ihren Biologischen Aufstieg zu der organisatorischen Höhe, mit der sie sich im Silur bzw. im Kabrium bereits vorstellen. Das erst würde einen tieferen Einblick in das Wesen des Biologischen Aufstiegs vermitteln.

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Summary This article deals with the question of the criteria for the biological ascent (Biologischer Aufstieg) of the organic world, resting on fossil evidence. That is, of that improvement which is not only restricted to the framework of a given general structure (Bauplan) as is the improvement of adaptation, but which also leads beyond general structures (Baupläne) of differentiated levels to a higher type,e.g. from the fishes through the amphibians and reptiles to the mammals or birds. Two groups of criteria are discussed at length, their content exposed and their univocity for the characterisation of this biological ascent is examined. The first group includes the criteria of increasing differentiation and more harmonious integration. The basis for these is the morphological-physiological differentiation, or more exactly, the totality of the organisms,i.e., their variety-in-unity. The second group of criteria, increasing independence of environment and increasing individual autonomy, is derived from the relationships of the organism to its environment and to other living forms, and stresses the subsistence of individuals,i.e., their greater or lesser degree of independence or self-sufficiency. Now since totality and subsistence are the decisive elements in a biological definition of the individual, it may be said that the biological ascent of an organism is higher, the more perfect its totality and subsistence and therefore its individuality is.The criteria mentioned are not univocal. The reasons for this lack of clarity are varied. First of all, there is no univocal and complete definition of the biological individual, so that it cannot be exactly stated just what gives an organism a more or less perfect individuality. Then the lines, along which improvements are made, and according to which the one remains within the general structure (improvement of adaptation) and the other goes beyond the general structure (biological ascent), are so intimately and singularly bound together, that they cannot be cleanly distinguished, and their characteristic notes exactly described. For each representative of a general structure, regardless of its level, is necessarily fitted into an environment and somehow or other specialised. There are no types with only notes of the general structure which show in no direction an improvment of adaption, but only the signs of biological ascent. Finally, we only have fossil evidence for the development or deployment of the great general structures (Grossbaupläne) of the animal world, namely that of the vertebrates and of the different groups of invertebrates, not for the most interesting and most important, that is, their biological ascent to the level of organisation with which they are found in the Silurian or Cambrian periods. Only that would give us a deeper insight into the essence of biological ascent.

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Résumé Ce travail pose la question des critères de la progression biologique (Biologischer Aufstieg), d'après les documents fossiles, dans le monde des organismes, c'est-à-dire de ce perfectionnement qui ne s'arrête pas à l'intérieur du cadre d'un phylum (Bauplan) donné, comme le perfectionnement de l'adaptation, mais qui conduit, au-de-là de phylums (Baupläne) de rang différent, à des types supérieurs, par exemple, des Poissons pas les Amphibies et les Reptiles jusqu'aux Mammifères ou aux Oiseaux. Deux groupes de critères y sont recensés en détail, leur contenu est exposé, et on les examine pour voir s'ils caractérisent sans ambiguïté la progression biologique. Le premier groupe comprend les critères de différenciation croissante et d'intégration harmonique. Ils sont fondés sur la différenciation morphophysiologique ou plus exactement sur la totalité des organismes, c'est-à-dire leur multiplicité dans l'unité. Le second groupe de critères, à savoir indépendance croissante du milieu et autonomie individuelle croissante, part des relations de l'organisme au milieu et aux autres formes vivantes et souligne la subsistence des individus, c'est-à-dire leur plus ou moins grande indépendence ou leur stabilité interne. Comme totalité et subsistence sont les éléments décisifs d'une définition biologique de l'individu, on peut dire que la progression biologique d'un organisme est d'autant plus élevée que sa totalité et subsistence et par là son être individuel sont plus accusés.Tous les critères mentionnés ne sont pas uniformes. Les motifs de leur imprécision sont divers. Tout d'abord, il n'y a pas encore de définition unique et complète de l'individu biologique, de sorte qu'on ne peut circonscrire d'une manière univoque ce qui confère à un organisme une individualité plus forte ou moins forte. Ensuite les lignées au-delà desquelles s'accomplissent des perfectionnements, et dont l'une reste intérieur au phylum (perfectionnement de l'adaptation), tandis que l'autre le transcende (progression biologique), sont entrelacées si intimement et d'une façon si particulière qu'elles ne se laissent pas séparer franchement et décrire rigoureusement selon leurs signes distinctifs. Tout représentant d'un phylum, peu importe son palier, est en effet nécessairement inséré dans un milieu et en quelque façon spécialisé. Il n'existe pas des types à caractères phylétiques purs, qui ne montrent dans aucune direction un perfectionnement de l'adaptation, mais seulement des marques caractéristiques de la progression biologique. Enfin nous ne connaissons pas les restes fossiles que le développement ou la formation des grands phylums (Grossbaupläne) du règne animal, à savoir du rameau des Vertébrés et des divers groupes des Invertébrés, mais non pas le plus intéressant et le plus important, leur progression biologique jusqu'au degré d'organisation qu'ils présentent déjà à l'époque du Silurien ou plutôt du Cambrien. C'est cela seulement qui permettrait une vue plus profonde sur la nature de la progression biologique.

     

A study of degeneration and regeneration in the divided rat sciatic nerve based on electron microscopy

Summary Changes in the proximal stump of axons of divided rat sciatic nerves in the first 6 weeks after nerve section were studied, particularly in terms of alterations in the organelle content, axoplasmic ultrastructure and the diameter of the axons. A variety of organelle types were observed; quasi-membranous structures, multivesicular bodies, dense bodies, vesicles and tubules, dense cored vesicles and alveolate vesicles: their identification and the functional implications of their presence are discussed. Alterations in the ultrastructure of the stained elements of the axoplasm are described. Axons containing excess organelles were divided into classes, comprising myelinated axons; and supergiant, giant and conventional non-myelinated axons. Temporal changes in these axons are described. The characteristics of the various classes of apparently non-myelinated axon are considered in terms of their identification as regenerating terminal sprouts of myelinated axons, segmentally demyelinated axons, sections through abnormal nodes of Ranvier or merely non-myelinated axons. The structure of axons in regenerating units is described. Changes in the neurofilament microtubule ratio of small axons without excess organelles are demonstrated, and spiralling of neurofilaments in some myelinated and non-myelinated axons with normal axoplasmic ultrastructure is illustrated and discussed.Medical Research Council Scholar.McLoughlin Fellow.The authors have great pleasure in acknowledging the expert technical assistance of Mrs. Frances Burton. G. W. would also like to thank the British Medical Research Council, the Wellcome Trust and LEPRA (British Leprosy relief association) for financial assistance without which this work could not have been completed.     

The detection and characterization of bacteria-sized protists in “Protist-free” filtrates and their potential impact on experimental marine ecology

Nuclepore filters of 0.6–1.0m pore size have been used to prepare protist-free water for a number of studies in microbial ecology. This procedure has been called into question by a recent study claiming that a significant portion of bacterial loss in filtrates could be due to uncharacterized predators passing through 0.6m filters. We were unable to directly observe protists in 0.6m filtrates using phase contrast, epifluorescence, or transmission electron microscopy. Using the culture techniques of rice grain enrichment and most probable number, however, we were able to observe and quantify several species of bacterivorous nanoflagellates that developed not only in 0.6m, but also in 0.4m seawater filtrates. The ability of predacious nanoflagellates to squeeze through bacteria-sized pores questions studies of bacterial production and chemical cycling that have assumed protist-free filtrates.     

Moral commitment without objectivity or illusion: Comments on Ruse and Woolcock

Peter Woolcock, in Ruse's Darwinian Meta-Ethics: A Critique, argues that the subjectivist (nonobjectivist) Darwinian metaethics proposed by Michael Ruse (in Taking Darwin Seriously) cannot work, because the illusion of objectivity that Ruse claims is essential to morality breaks down when it is recognized as illusion, and there then remain no good reasons for acknowledging or following moral obligations. Woolcock, however, is mistaken in supposing that moral behaviour requires rational motivation. Ruse's Darwinian metaethical analysis shows why such objective support for morality is neither plausible nor necessary; and when that is recognized, it can also be seen that Ruse's proposed illusion of moral objectivity is superfluous.