Richness, Abundance, and Complementarity of Fruit-feeding Butterfly Species in Relict Sacred Forests and Forest Reserves of Ghana

Sacred forest groves in Ghana are centuries old protected areas that were once part of continuous forest cover but now mostly exist as relict forest patches embedded in an agropastoral landscape. We conducted a year-long survey of the fruit-feeding butterfly fauna of four sacred groves and two forest reserves in the moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana to characterize resident species diversity and complementarity among communities. Joint analysis of frugivorous butterfly diversity at these six forest fragments, which ranged in size from 6 to 5000 ha, was used to evaluate the conservation potential of these ancient indigenous reserves. A total of 6836 individuals were trapped across all sites, representing 79 species and five subfamilies. Community diversity was characterized in terms of, (a) number of species accumulated versus sampling effort, (b) rarefied species richness, (c) nonparametric richness estimates, (d) species evenness, (e) Simpson’s Index of Diversity, and (f) complementarity of communities. Diversity of the fruit-feeding butterfly communities, quantified in terms of both species evenness and rarefied species richness, was higher at the larger forest reserves than at the small sacred forest groves. Additionally, although all sites had species trapped only at that site, the 5000-ha forest reserve harbored a resident community that was clearly distinctive from and more diverse than the other communities including the other forest reserve. Hence, our findings add to the burgeoning body of data that indicates large reserves are the foundation of successful conservation programs. Nonetheless, we found these small forest patches contribute to biodiversity conservation in at least three ways and these are identified and discussed. We also identify a number of species that appear more or less vulnerable to dynamics of forest fragmentation based on changes in their relative abundance across sites and we interpret these data in the context of potential indicator species and theoretical predictions of at-risk species.     

A bat (Chiroptera) survey of Mora rainforest in Trinidad's Victoria-Mayaro Forest Reserve

The bat fauna of the Mora excelsa-dominated rainforest in the Victoria-Mayaro Forest Reserve (VMFR) in south-east Trinidad was assessed over a six-week period. Trapping effort totaled 271 mist net hours and caught 143 bats of 22 species at a rate of one bat every two net-hours. Simpsons diversity index (1/D) was 1.28 for primary Mora forest and extrapolation using Chaos' estimator, a non-parametric method, estimated the total number of species as 39. Phyllostomid bats of the subfamilies Phyllostominae and Stenodermatinae were well represented, and frugivores predominated in number, accounting for 77% of all captures in primary forest. The most abundant bat, the ground-storey frugivore, Carollia perspicillata, accounted for 43% of all captures in primary forest and, in contrast to most bats, was also abundant on man-made paths through the forest. Four species not previously recorded from the reserve, Tonatia bidens, Trachops cirrhosus, a Myotis sp., and the rare Phylloderma stenops, were captured, bringing the total number of bats species known from the reserve to 35. Thus, over half (52%) of Trinidad's 67 bat species occur in this one forest reserve, making it a high priority area for effective protection and management.     

Some ambient environmental conditions, food and reproductive habits of the banded lampeye killifish Aplocheilichthys spilauchen in the Kakum estuary wetland, Ghana

The use of killifish in biological control of mosquitoes to complement other mosquito control programs is gaining interest due to the increasing development of chemically resistant substrains of mosquitoes. This study investigates the ambient salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen as well as food habits, sex ratio, fecundity and spawning frequency of Aplocheilichthys spilauchen in Ghana in an effort to broaden knowledge of the suitability of this killifish for mosquito control. Sampling was undertaken from July 2009 to January 2010 to monitor the levels and variations in the environmental parameters and fish abundance, and also to determine the feeding ecology, fecundity and possible spawning frequency. Results suggested that lower levels of salinity favoured the population while levels beyond 4‰ were detrimental. The species preyed highly on insects and insect larvae, which constituted 80% of food consumed. Females significantly outnumbered males by almost 2:1 (χ²?=?28.57, P?<?0.05), and had low fecundity (2–44 eggs). Ova diameter analysis suggested that the species spawns continuously. The better survivability of the species in freshwater pools with continuous spawning of drought tolerant eggs, and the high preference for insects and insect larvae suggest that it could be a useful candidate for biocontrol of mosquitoes.     

Visual pigments and optical habitats of surfperch (Embiotocidae) in the California kelp forest

We studied the optical microhabitat use and visual pigment variation among a group of closely related teleosts (surfperch: Embiotocidae) living along the nearshore central California coast. We employed a diver-operated spectroradiometer to record the optical microhabitat use of eight surfperch species in Monterey Bay. and microspectrophotometry to measure visual pigment absorbance for nine surfperch species. Species were dichromatic with mixtures of A1- and A2-based visual pigments exhibiting extensive maximum absorbance (lambda(max)) variation across species: 455-482 nm for SWS cones and 527-546 nm for LWS cones. Interspecific variation in sidewelling irradiance measurements (mean lambdaFmaxs) significantly accounted for 63% of the variation in surfperch LWS visual pigments and 83% of the interspecific variation in SWS visual pigments using a phylogenetically-corrected regression technique. Optimality models for maximizing relative photon capture of background radiance demonstrate that the LWS cone lambda(max) values are tuned for maximizing photon capture of the species-specific horizontal visual field, while the SWS cone lambda(max), are well offset from the dominant background radiance. This study is one of the first to demonstrate species-specific differences in habitat usage at microhabitat scales accounting for differences in photoreceptor peak absorbance among closely related, sympatric species.     

Population fluctuation of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) in forest and forest edge habitats in Tucumán province,Argentina

The aim of this work was to study the possible effects of forest and forest edge habitats on the population fluctuation of the Anopheles species in northwestern Argentina, taking into consideration the relationship between this fluctuation and climatic variables. This study is one of the first that involves the Anopheles fauna in the country and its dynamics in two different habitats. Sampling was carried out from October, 2002 to October, 2003, in the forest and on the forest edge. Both habitats were compared for species diversity and abundance, and multiple regression analyses were performed to analyze the effects of environmental variables on the population dynamics. Five hundred and sixteen adult specimens of Anopheles species were collected, the most numerous group being Arribalzaga (52.1%), followed by Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) strodei (20.5%) and Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) evansae (6.4%). Mosquito abundance was greatest in the forest, the most productive habitat. Samples were collected throughout the sampling period, with a smaller peak in summer. Small numbers of Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis were found throughout the year. Relative humidity, with a 15‐day delay, was the factor that most strongly contributed to the temporal sample fluctuation. We conclude that the best season for anopheline development in the study area is from spring to fall, although the period with the greatest transmission risk is the fall, with the greatest An. pseudopunctipennis abundance.     

Benthos and demersal fish habitats in the German Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the North Sea

We compiled data from different monitoring surveys to analyse and compare community and diversity patterns of fish, epi- and infauna in the German Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the North Sea in order to identify benthic habitats common to all faunal components. We found congruent community patterns of fish, epi- and infauna for the coastal waters, the Oysterground and the area called “Duck’s Bill”, which coincided with specific abiotic characteristics of these regions. The three regions were defined as special habitats for fish, epi- and infauna species in the German EEZ. The differences in the seasonal variability of abiotic factors seem to be the most important discriminating abiotic characteristic for the three habitats. The spatial distribution of fish, epifauna and infauna communities remained stable over time although habitat characteristics such as sea surface temperature increased due to climate change. However, it is expected that the coastal habitat will be more sensitive to future climate change effects in contrast to the Oysterground and Duck’s Bill habitat.     

Avian use of man-disturbed forest habitats in the Eastern Ghats, India

Short-term, fixed-line surveys using mist-nets and visual censuses were made of bird populations on five plots in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. Plots included two segments of moderately-disturbed hill forest, a remnant patch of humid ravine forest surrounded by young coffee, a mature coffee plantation with remnant natural forest overstory, and a sub-mature teak monoculture. Species-number and diversity (H') were measured to be highest in the two hill forest plots. Equitability was highest in the Teak plot. Population numbers were highest in one of the forest plots and the Coffee plot. 'Over-dominance' by tramp species was exhibited in the Coffee plot, in which the three most common bird species (two bulbuls and a white-eye) comprised more than half of the individuals censused. All censuses were dominated by non-forest and forest-edge species; few raptors and species larger than 100 g were recorded in censuses. The patch of Ravine Forest was species-poor and yet supported several unusual species (e.g., Abbott's Babbler Malacocincla abbotti. Blue Chat Erithacus brunneus and Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostris ) found on no other plot. We suggest that: (1) the few remaining undisturbed tracts of moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forest should be declared natural reserves with complete protection from disturbance; (2) future forestry development in upland southeastern India should exclude teak monocultu re except on badly disturbed or clear-felled areas. Preferred development would feature coffee/ pepper plantation under maximum natural overstory, interspersed with remnant forest tracts for faunal and watershed protection. Such a combination would appear to have the least effect on the original forest avifauna.     

Space,Time, Rhetoric and Agricultural Change in the Transition Zone of Ghana

This paper examines change within farming systems in the Brong Ahafo Region in Ghana, and the impact of agricultural modernization and mechanization on the regional economy and local farming systems. It combines anthropological, historical, and remote sensing techniques to document changes in farming practice and land use and land cover. It argues that change is not the product of simple evolutionary sequences of responses to population pressures or adoption of modern technologies, but arises out of a complex set of factors interacting within wider regional economies, which are increasingly commodified and commercialized and subject to global market pressures. These include technical, institutional, market, movements of labor, and transport infrastructure development dimensions, which often create new opportunities for local farmers other than those envisaged in agricultural development policies. Tracing the opening up of the transition zone over the last 40–50 years through the development of state farms and mechanized synthetic agriculture, the paper examines the changing fortunes of farming systems within a radius of 30–40 km from agricultural technology hubs and the implications for models of agricultural development.

Forest recovery after swidden cultivation across a 40-year chronosequence in the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil

Tree species composition and structure of a 40-year chronosequence of secondary forests was compared with old-growth forests in southern Bahia, Brazil. Twelve stands were randomly selected that represented three age classes: 10, 25, and 40 year old with four replications in each class. All stands selected had been established after abandonment from swidden cultivation and were surrounded by old-growth forests. In every stand, ten 0.01-ha transects were established and all stems (≥5 cm diameter at breast height) were measured and identified. Results were compared with the dataset of two neighboring old-growth sites. Mean diameter, total height, and stand basal area increased with age. Number of trees/ha peaked in 40 year old stands. The results showed that secondary forests in this region take much more than 40 years to recover the structure of old-growth forests. In contrast, species richness recovery was rapid with a continuous accumulation of species with age in secondary forests. Species richness and diversity increased with age as did similarity between secondary stands and old-growth stands. More than half of the species found in the 40 year old stands were shared with the neighboring old-growth forests. However, species richness and diversity were higher in old growth sites.     

Upper Moscovian-middle Kasimovian conodonts (Pennsylvanian, Carboniferous) from the Las LLacerias Section (Cantabrian Zone, north Spain)

Las LLacerias Section in the western part of the Picos de Europa Unit (Cantabrian Zone) in northern Spain offers the best (essentially continuous) Upper Moscovian-Kasimovian succession in the Pennsylvanian of the Cantabrian Zone. The section consists almost entirely of limestones, and conodonts are scarce in general, but some Myachkovian levels are significantly more productive. Most specimens recovered are Pa pectiniform elements, and are generally well preserved. Idiognathodus, Streptognathodus, Gondolella, and Neognathodus are the most significant genera and Ubinates and Hindeodus are present. Idiognathodus is the dominant genus. Most of the idiognathodids differ morphologically from those elsewhere, and one, Idiognathodus covadongae, is formally recognized a new species. The presence of Idiognathodus eccentricus in the upper part of the Kreviakinian levels suggests a correlation with the lower Missourian of the United States. Neognathodus disappears in the upper part of the Myachkovian beds. Gondolella pohli was recovered from a short interval in the upper portion of the Myachkovian beds. Paleoecological conditions representing shallow, open, normal marine offshore deposits of the Idiognathodus-biofacies are interpreted for the lower portion of the Myachkovian interval.     

Foods and foraging places of rats (Rodentia: Muridae) in the lowland evergreen forest of Ghana

A study was made of the foods and ground-zone foraging places of Muridae in little-disturbed moist evergreen forest in Ghana, West Africa. Data were obtained by means of baited traps operated for about 8000 trap-nights, and by the examination of the contents of 218 stomachs.
Seven species of rats were found, of which six are believed to be members of the natural forest fauna. Foraging places of rats of some species were found to be related to features of the topography and the structure of the vegetation. Diets consisted of vegetable materials, insects and soft-bodied invertebrates. The relative importance of these categories is estimated for each species on the basis of a non-microscopical volumetric method. Plant tissues were recognized by histological features, but were not identified. The variety of vegetable foods, numbers and sizes of food masses in the stomachs, and sharing of vegetable foods between species are analysed. Cases of ecological isolation are pointed out, and a brief comparison made with the Central African forest murid fauna.     

Nontimber forest product gathering in Ritigala forest (Sri Lanka): Household strategies and community differentiation

Sri Lanka has a long tradition of forest product use. The relationship of people with a dry zone forest was studied using a sample of 48 households in two villages that varied in distance to the forest and access to the market. All households interviewed collected subsistence forest products and a majority of them also collected commercial products. The daily peak-season income from commercial gathering was 4.5 to 7.7 times the daily labor wage. There is a strong gender specialization, with commercial gathering dominated by men whereas subsistence gathering is almost exclusively the task of women. The average forest-derived household income in the village closer to the forest and with better market access was nearly double that of the other village. Family size as a proxy of labor availability was the main discriminating factor between those households who did and those who did not gather commercial products. A small inverse relationship between forest gathering and size of household agricultural land (particularly paddy rice) was observed. No clear relationship was found between total household income and forest derived income, contradicting the view that commercial forest gathering is an exclusive activity of the poorest households.     

Comparing aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) presence and distribution between degraded and non-degraded forest within Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar

The aye-aye is considered the most widely distributed lemur in Madagascar; however, the effect of forest quality on aye-aye abundance is unknown. We compared aye-aye presence across degraded and non-degraded forest at Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. We used secondary signs (feeding sites, high activity sites) as indirect cues of aye-aye presence and Canarium trees as an indicator of resource availability. All 3 measured variables indicated higher aye-aye abundance within non-degraded forest; however, the differences across forest type were not significant. Both degraded and non-degraded forests showed a positive correlation between feeding sites and high activity sites. We found that Canarium, an important aye-aye food source, was rare and had limited dispersal, particularly across degraded forest. This preliminary study provides baseline data for aye-aye activity and resource utilization across degraded and non-degraded forests.     

Structure,function and floristic relationships of plant communities in stressful habitats marginal to the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest

The Brazilian Atlantic rainforest consists of a typical tropical rainforest on mountain slopes, and stands out as a biodiversity hotspot for its high species richness and high level of species endemism. This forest is bordered by plant communities with lower species diversity, due mostly to more extreme environmental conditions than those found in the mesic rainforest. Between the mountain slopes and the sea, the coastal plains have swamp forests, dry semi-deciduous forests and open thicket vegetation on marine sand deposits. At the other extreme, on top of the mountains (>2000 m a.s.l.), the rainforest is substituted by high altitude fields and open thicket vegetation on rocky outcrops. Thus, the plant communities that are marginal to the rainforest are subjected either to flooding, drought, oceanicity or cold winter temperatures. It was found that positive interactions among plants play an important role in the structuring and functioning of a swamp forest, a coastal sandy vegetation and a cold, high altitude vegetation in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Moreover, only a few species seem to adopt this positive role and, therefore, the functioning of these entire systems may rely on them. Curiously, these nurse plants are often epiphytes in the rainforest, and at the study sites are typically terrestrial. Many exhibit crassulacean acid metabolism. Conservation initiatives must treat the Atlantic coastal vegetation as a complex rather than a rainforest alone.     

Constitutive polymorphic cyanogenesis in the Australian rainforest tree, Ryparosa kurrangii (Achariaceae)

Cyanogenesis, the liberation of volatile hydrogen cyanide from endogenous cyanide-containing compounds, is a proven plant defence mechanism and the particular cyanogens involved have taxonomic utility. The cyclopentenoncyanhydrin glycoside gynocardin was the only cyanogen isolated from foliar tissue of the rare Australian rainforest tree, Ryparosa kurrangii (Achariaceae). Mechanical damage simulating foliar herbivory did not induce a significant increase in the expression of cyanogenesis over a 24h period, indicating cyanogenic herbivore defence in R. kurrangii is constitutive. The cyanogenic potential of mature leaves was quantitatively polymorphic between trees in a natural population, ranging from 0.54 to 4.77 mg CN g(-1) dry wt leaf tissue.     

The nematode community in the Atlantic rainforest lizard Enyalius perditus Jackson, from south-eastern Brazil

Studies focusing on communities of helminths from Brazilian lizards are increasing, but there are many blanks in the knowledge of parasitic fauna of wild fauna. This lack of knowledge hampers understanding of ecological and parasitological aspects of involved species. Moreover, the majority of research has focused on parasitic fauna of lizards from families Tropiduridae and Scincidae. Only a few studies have looked at lizards from the family Leiosauridae, including some species of Enyalius. This study presents data on the gastrointestinal parasite fauna of Enyalius perditus and their relationships with ecological aspects of hosts in a disturbed Atlantic rainforest area in the state of Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil. Two nematode species, Oswaldocruzia burseyi [(Molineidae) and Strongyluris oscari (Heterakidae) were found. Nematode species showed an aggregated distribution in this host population, with O. burseyi being more aggregated than S. oscari. The present study extends the range of occurrence of O. burseyi to the Brazilian continental area.     

A response to Gatali and Wallin (2015) Bird diversity in the savanna habitats of Akagera National Park,Rwanda, in the post-war recovery period

The paper ‘Bird diversity in the savanna habitats of Akagera National Park, Rwanda, in the post-war recovery period’ by Gatali and Wallin (Ostrich 86(3): 267–276, 2015) makes several claims for new species records for Akagera National Park and Rwanda. We found that Gatali and Wallin recorded several species considered very rare in Rwanda and new discoveries; these findings often contradicted the existing literature. We doubt the validity of 34 species records and we aim to demonstrate that these claims are mostly the result of misidentification or human error and consider that future researchers should use their findings with caution. Some findings around more common species may be validated through further studies and we encourage others to conduct fieldwork in Akagera National Park.     

Molecular Phylogeny of the Butterfly Genus Polytremis (Hesperiidae,Hesperiinae, Baorini) in China

Background

The genus Polytremis, restricted to the continental part of the southeastern Palaearctic and northern Oriental regions, is one of the largest and most diverse lineages of the tribe Baorini. Previous studies on the genus were focused mainly on morphological classification and identification of new species. Due to the lack of effective and homologous traits of morphology, there were many challenges in the traditional classification. In this report, we reconstruct the phylogeny to provide a solid framework for these studies and to test the traditional limits and relationships of taxa.

Methodology and Principal Findings

We sequenced a mitochondrial and three nuclear gene fragments, coupled with an evaluation of traditional morphological characters, to determine the phylogenetic relationships for a total of 15 species representing all major species groups of the Polytremis genus in China, and to elucidate their taxonomic status.

Conclusions and Significance

Analysis of mitochrondial and nuclear DNA showed considerable congruent phylogenetic signal in topology at the inter-species level. We found strong support for the monophyly of Polytremis and some clades were recognized with morphological data. Thus, the COI sequence in our study could be used as a DNA barcode to identify almost all members of the genus. However, incongruences of phylogenetic analyses occurred: in contrast to the phylogenetic trees of mitochondrial COI, it was not possible for nuclear rDNA to discriminate P. gotama from P. caerulescens, suggesting a possible recent separation of these two species. Additionally, P. theca was the only species with a greater intra-specific genetic distance compared to some inter-specific genetic distances in this study and some problems associated with the cryptic diversity of the species are discussed. The results of this study will helpful to reveal the causes of the high degree of diversity of butterflies, and possibly other groups of insects in China.