Planning for Implementation: Landscape‐Level Restoration Planning in an Agricultural Setting

The conservation of biodiversity in highly fragmented landscapes often requires large‐scale habitat restoration in addition to traditional biological conservation techniques. The selection of priority restoration sites to support long‐term persistence of biodiversity within landscape‐scale projects however remains a challenge for many restoration practitioners. Techniques developed under the paradigm of systematic conservation planning may provide a template for resolving these challenges. Systematic conservation planning requires the identification of conservation objectives, the establishment of quantitative targets for each objective, and the identification of areas which, if conserved, would contribute to meeting those targets. A metric developed by systematic conservation planners termed “irreplaceability” allows for analysis and prioritization of such conservation options, and allows for the display of analysis results in a way that can engage private landowners and other decision makers. The process of systematic conservation planning was modified to address landscape‐level restoration prioritization in southern Ontario. A series of recent and locally relevant landscape ecology studies allowed the identification of restoration objectives and quantitative targets, and a simple algorithm was developed to identify and prioritize potential restoration projects. The application of an irreplaceability analysis to landscape‐level restoration planning allowed the identification of varying needs throughout the planning region, resulting from underlying differences in topography and settlement patterns, and allowed the effective prioritization of potential restoration projects. Engagement with rural landowners and agricultural commodity groups, as well as the irreplaceability maps developed, ultimately resulted in a substantial increase in the number and total area of habitat restoration projects in the planning region.     

Urban greenspace composition and landscape context influence natural enemy community composition and function

Conservation research has historically been aimed at preserving high value natural habitats, but urbanization and its associated impacts have prompted broader mandates that include the preservation and promotion of biodiversity in cities. Current efforts within urban landscapes aim to support biodiversity and diverse ecosystem services such as storm water management, sustainable food production, and toxin remediation. Arthropod natural enemies provide biocontrol services important for the ecosystem management of urban greenspaces. Establishing habitat for these and other beneficial arthropods is a growing area of urban conservation. Habitat design, resource inputs, management, and abiotic conditions shape the value of greenspace habitats for arthropods. In general, larger patches with diverse plant communities support a greater abundance and diversity of natural enemies and biocontrol services, yet opposing patterns or no effects have also been documented. The surrounding landscape is likely a contributor to this variation in natural enemy response to patch-scale habitat design and management. Looking across rural–urban landscape gradients, natural enemy communities shift toward dominance by habitat generalists and disturbance tolerant species in urban areas compared to rural or natural communities. These changes have been linked to variation in habitat fragmentation, plant productivity and management intensity. In landscape-scale studies focusing solely within cities, variables such as impervious surface area and greenspace connectivity affect the community assembly of natural enemies within a patch. Given these findings, a greater mechanistic understanding of how both the composition and spatial context of urban greenspaces influence natural enemy biodiversity–biocontrol relationships is needed to advance conservation planning and implementation.     

Restoring at landscape scales: Interview with Andrew Bennett

Intrigued by the power of science to grapple with questions relevant to management, Victorian landscape ecologist Andrew Bennett has directed his career to investigating how human land‐use and landscape change affect native fauna and ecological processes, seeking ways to achieve the ongoing conservation of Australian native fauna.     

Fauna habitat modelling and mapping: A review and case study in the Lower Hunter Central Coast region of NSW

Abstract Habitat models are now broadly used in conservation planning on public lands. If implemented correctly, habitat modelling is a transparent and repeatable technique for describing and mapping biodiversity values, and its application in peri‐urban and agricultural landscape planning is likely to expand rapidly. Conservation planning in such landscapes must be robust to the scrutiny that arises when biodiversity constraints are placed on developers and private landholders. A standardized modelling and model evaluation method based on widely accepted techniques will improve the robustness of conservation plans. We review current habitat modelling and model evaluation methods and provide a habitat modelling case study in the New South Wales central coast region that we hope will serve as a methodological template for conservation planners. We make recommendations on modelling methods that are appropriate when presence‐absence and presence‐only survey data are available and provide methodological details and a website with data and training material for modellers. Our aim is to provide practical guidelines that preserve methodological rigour and result in defendable habitat models and maps. The case study was undertaken in a rapidly developing area with substantial biodiversity values under urbanization pressure. Habitat maps for seven priority fauna species were developed using logistic regression models of species‐habitat relationships and a bootstrapping methodology was used to evaluate model predictions. The modelled species were the koala, tiger quoll, squirrel glider, yellow‐bellied glider, masked owl, powerful owl and sooty owl. Models ranked sites adequately in terms of habitat suitability and provided predictions of sufficient reliability for the purpose of identifying preliminary conservation priority areas. However, they are subject to multiple uncertainties and should not be viewed as a completely accurate representation of the distribution of species habitat. We recommend the use of model prediction in an adaptive framework whereby models are iteratively updated and refined as new data become available.     

Citizen Science Program Shows Urban Areas Have Lower Occurrence of Frog Species,but Not Accelerated Declines

Understanding the influence of landscape change on animal populations is critical to inform biodiversity conservation efforts. A particularly important goal is to understand how urban density affects the persistence of animal populations through time, and how these impacts can be mediated by habitat provision; but data on this question are limited for some taxa. Here, we use data from a citizen science monitoring program to investigate the effect of urbanization on patterns of frog species richness and occurrence over 13 years. Sites surrounded by a high proportion of bare ground (a proxy for urbanization) had consistently lower frog occurrence, but we found no evidence that declines were restricted to urban areas. Instead, several frog species showed declines in rural wetlands with low-quality habitat. Our analysis shows that urban wetlands had low but stable species richness; but also that population trajectories are strongly influenced by vegetation provision in both the riparian zone and the wider landscape. Future increases in the extent of urban environments in our study area are likely to negatively impact populations of several frog species. However, existing urban areas are unlikely to lose further frog species in the medium term. We recommend that landscape planning and management focus on the conservation and restoration of rural wetlands to arrest current declines, and the revegetation of urban wetlands to facilitate the re-expansion of urban-sensitive species.     

Avian research in the Caribbean: past contributions and current priorities

ABSTRACT The islands of the Caribbean contain habitat of critical importance to a large number of endemic and resident birds, as well as many overwintering Neotropical migrants, and they rank as a globally outstanding conservation priority ecoregion and biodiversity hotspot. Considerable research from the region has focused on the ecology of permanent resident species, and these studies have had particular significance for threatened species management, especially parrot biology and conservation, but also for tropical community ecology in general. Work by ornithologists in the Caribbean has been instrumental in improving our understanding of the ecology of overwintering Neotropical migrants and in developing long‐term monitoring programs. Although Caribbean‐based studies of birds have resulted in significant contributions in many important areas of ecological research, there is a great need for additional research. Especially needed are studies with application to the management of resident species, and studies of how bird populations may be affected by pathogens, parasites, plants, and other types of biotic interactions. Studies focusing on how bird species and populations are affected by global climate change, and cumulative, landscape‐level changes in land use are also needed. Along with additional research, scientists have an important role to play in building capacity to prepare the next generation of biologists in the region who will need to address mounting challenges related to biodiversity protection. As with many conservation efforts, funding is a critical need for almost all organizations and agencies involved in research, conservation action, and capacity building in the West Indies.     

Faunal response to revegetation in agricultural areas of Australia: A review

Summary   We reviewed the literature on fauna in revegetation in Australian agricultural areas. Of 27 studies, 22 examined birds, with few studies focusing on other faunal groups (four to six studies for each remaining group) and nine examined multiple groups. Existing evidence suggests that revegetation provides habitat for many species of bird and some arboreal marsupials. Species richness of birds was greater in revegetated areas that were large, wide, structurally complex, old and near remnant vegetation. Bats, small terrestrial mammals, reptiles and amphibians did not appear to benefit significantly from revegetation in the short term. Evidence to date suggests that revegetation is not a good replacement of remnant vegetation for many species. Key information gaps exist in the faunal response to (i) revegetation as it ages; (ii) different structural complexities of revegetation; (iii) revegetation that is composed of indigenous vs. non-indigenous plant species; and (iv) revegetation that is in riparian vs. non-riparian locations. In addition, little is known on the value of revegetation for declining or threatened fauna, or of the composition of fauna in revegetation. There is a need to better understand the balance between quantity of revegetation in the landscape, and the quality or complexity of revegetation at the patch scale. Based on current evidence, we recommend revegetation be conducted in patches that are large, wide and structurally complex to maximize the benefits to fauna.     

基于不同视角与方法的北京市密云区生境规划对比

由快速城市化导致的生境破碎化严重影响了生态系统的服务功能。因此,保护与规划城市生境尤为重要。然而目前科学的生境规划设计方法仍有待探索,因为生境的定义具有不同的视角与内涵。基于保护生物学与景观生态学理论,对比了物种视角与景观视角下的2种规划思路,并结合北京市密云区的生境规划,分析对比2种方法的规划结果。在物种方法中,首先选取承担多种生态作用的豹猫为目标物种,运用HSI模型并结合专家赋值法和层次分析法确定每个评价因子的权重,最后通过ArcGIS计算选取高适宜性源地并建立生态网络。景观方法则基于ArcGIS、Guidos、Conefor等软件平台,采用MSPA和景观连通性分析方法,选取重要核心区源地并建立景观生境网络。研究结果表明,2种方法的源地分布差异较大。因此生境规划不能盲目选择一种方法,需有机结合2种方法得到源地与廊道结果。根据地块承载的生境生态功能重要程度确定源地核心保护区,以实现最佳的生境规划和有效的生态系统服务。     

Partitioning the diversity of riverine fish: the roles of habitat types and non-native species

1. Quantifying how biological diversity is distributed in the landscape is one of the central themes of conservation ecology. For this purpose, landscape classifications are being intensively used in conservation planning and biodiversity management, although there is still little information about their efficacy. 2. I used data from 158 running water sites in Hungary to examine the contribution of six a priori established habitat types to regional level diversity of fish assemblages. Three community measures [species richness, diversity (Shannon, Simpson indices), assemblage composition] were examined at two assemblage levels (entire assemblage, the native assemblage). The relative role of non‐native species was quantified to examine their contribution to patterns in diversity in this strongly human influenced landscape. 3. Additive diversity partitioning revealed the primary importance of beta diversity (i.e. among‐site factors) to patterns in species richness. Landscape‐scale patterns in species richness were best explained by between‐habitat type (beta₂: 41.2%), followed by within‐habitat type (beta₁: 37.7%) and finally within‐site (alpha: 21.1%) diversity. Diversity indices showed patterns different from species richness, indicating the importance of relative abundance distributions on the results. Exclusion of non‐natives from the analysis gave similar results to the entire‐assemblage level analysis. 4. Canonical analysis of principal coordinates, complemented with indicator species analysis justified the separation of fish assemblages among the habitat types, although classification error was high. Multivariate dispersion, a measure of compositional beta diversity, showed significant differences among the habitat types. Contrary to species diversity (i.e. richness, diversity indices), patterns in compositional diversity were strongly influenced by the exclusion of non‐natives from the analyses. 5. This study is the first to quantify how running water habitat types contribute to fish diversity at the landscape scale and how non‐native species influence this pattern. These results on riverine fish assemblages support the hypothesis that environmental variability (i.e. the diversity of habitat types) is an indication of biodiversity and can be used in large‐scale conservation designs. The study emphasises the joint application of additive diversity partitioning and multivariate statistics when exploring the contribution of landscape components to the overall biodiversity of the landscape mosaic.     

Incorporating climate change adaptation into marine protected area planning

Climate change is increasingly impacting marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks, yet adaptation strategies are rarely incorporated into MPA design and management plans according to the primary scientific literature. Here we review the state of knowledge for adapting existing and future MPAs to climate change and synthesize case studies (n = 27) of how marine conservation planning can respond to shifting environmental conditions. First, we derive a generalized conservation planning framework based on five published frameworks that incorporate climate change adaptation to inform MPA design. We then summarize examples from the scientific literature to assess how conservation goals were defined, vulnerability assessments performed and adaptation strategies incorporated into the design and management of existing or new MPAs. Our analysis revealed that 82% of real‐world examples of climate change adaptation in MPA planning derive from tropical reefs, highlighting the need for research in other ecosystems and habitat types. We found contrasting recommendations for adaptation strategies at the planning stage, either focusing only on climate refugia, or aiming for representative protection of areas encompassing the full range of expected climate change impacts. Recommendations for MPA management were more unified and focused on adaptative management approaches. Lastly, we evaluate common barriers to adopting climate change adaptation strategies based on reviewing studies which conducted interviews with MPA managers and other conservation practitioners. This highlights a lack of scientific studies evaluating different adaptation strategies and shortcomings in current governance structures as two major barriers, and we discuss how these could be overcome. Our review provides a comprehensive synthesis of planning frameworks, case studies, adaptation strategies and management actions which can inform a more coordinated global effort to adapt existing and future MPA networks to continued climate change.     

Continental‐scale analysis of feral cat diet in Australia,prey‐switching and the risk: benefit of rabbit control

Recent analyses of geographical variation in cats’ diet across Australia have been used to highlight rabbit control as a conservation risk, on the basis that prey‐switching by cats following rabbit control is likely to threaten Australian fauna. There is no direct evidence to support that proposition. However, there is direct evidence of repeated prey‐switching due to seasonal fluctuations in uncontrolled rabbit populations, of long‐term suppression of rabbit numbers by effective rabbit control, and that reduced rabbit abundance leads to reduced cat abundance, reduced predation of native fauna and recovery of threatened prey populations. Furthermore, rabbits are a known threat to many Australian native plants and rabbit control has proven benefits for their recovery, thereby offering long‐term benefits for dependent fauna and broader ecosystem function. On the balance of evidence, rabbit control should be encouraged in Australia wherever possible, as a national conservation priority.     

Sex‐dependent habitat selection in a high‐density Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax population in southern France,and the implications for conservation

Conservation measures often rely on habitat management, so knowledge about a species’ habitat use is a prerequisite for effective conservation planning. The Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax, a medium‐sized bird native to the Palaearctic steppes and today found in extensively farmed habitats, is a threatened species. Its population experienced a 94% decline in farmland habitats in France between 1982 and 1996, and populations all over Europe have suffered equally sharp declines. Due to this steep negative trend, this species has been the subject of a number of habitat selection studies in order to develop relevant conservation measures based on its habitat requirements. In this study, we investigated the habitat selection of a range of habitat types by both sexes and at two nested spatial scales: plot scale and landscape scale. In addition, we analysed intra‐specific social interactions by incorporating conspecific density in the statistical models of habitat use. The study was conducted on a very high‐density population, perhaps the highest ever recorded for this species at around 50 Bustards per 100 ha of suitable habitat. Our methodology combined two field approaches (point counts and quadrat counts). The findings showed rather limited sexual dimorphism in terms of habitat selection at a local scale, with only vegetation height differing between sexes at a micro‐habitat scale, no selection at landscape scale, and a prevailing role of social factors at both scales. The implications for future conservation strategies in relation to population density and landscape composition are discussed.     

The role of refuges in the persistence of Australian dryland mammals

Irruptive population dynamics are characteristic of a wide range of fauna in the world's arid (dryland) regions. Recent evidence indicates that regional persistence of irruptive species, particularly small mammals, during the extensive dry periods of unpredictable length that occur between resource pulses in drylands occurs as a result of the presence of refuge habitats or refuge patches into which populations contract during dry (bust) periods. These small dry‐period populations act as a source of animals when recolonisation of the surrounding habitat occurs during and after subsequent resource pulses (booms). The refuges used by irruptive dryland fauna differ in temporal and spatial scale from the refugia to which species contract in response to changing climate. Refuges of dryland fauna operate over timescales of months and years, whereas refugia operate on timescales of millennia over which evolutionary divergence may occur. Protection and management of refuge patches and refuge habitats should be a priority for the conservation of dryland‐dwelling fauna. This urgency is driven by recognition that disturbance to refuges can lead to the extinction of local populations and, if disturbance is widespread, entire species. Despite the apparent significance of dryland refuges for conservation management, these sites remain poorly understood ecologically. Here, we synthesise available information on the refuges of dryland‐dwelling fauna, using Australian mammals as a case study to provide focus, and document a research agenda for increasing this knowledge base. We develop a typology of refuges that recognises two main types of refuge: fixed and shifting. We outline a suite of models of fixed refuges on the basis of stability in occupancy between and within successive bust phases of population cycles. To illustrate the breadth of refuge types we provide case studies of refuge use in three species of dryland mammal: plains mouse (Pseudomys australis), central rock‐rat (Zyzomys pedunculatus), and spinifex hopping‐mouse (Notomys alexis). We suggest that future research should focus on understanding the species‐specific nature of refuge use and the spatial ecology of refuges with a focus on connectivity and potential metapopulation dynamics. Assessing refuge quality and understanding the threats to high‐quality refuge patches and habitat should also be a priority. To facilitate this understanding we develop a three‐step methodology for determining species‐specific refuge location and habitat attributes. This review is necessarily focussed on dryland mammals in continental Australia where most refuge‐based research has been undertaken. The applicability of the refuge concept and the importance of refuges for dryland fauna conservation elsewhere in the world should be investigated. We predict that refuge‐using mammals will be widespread particularly among dryland areas with unpredictable rainfall patterns.     

Planning for reserve adequacy in dynamic landscapes; maximizing future representation of vegetation communities under flood disturbance in the Pantanal wetland

Aim Using a probabilistic modelling framework, we aimed to incorporate landscape spatiotemporal dynamics into reserve design. We employed a spatially explicit stochastic model, which integrates both hydrological and biological processes, to simulate the wetland’s biological succession. Location Pantanal wetland (with 140,000 km²) between Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay. Methods We used the reserve design software Marxan to optimize the current and future representation (up to 50 years) of 20% of five plant communities with maximum reliability (i.e. smallest uncertainty). The Kappa statistic was used to compare selection frequencies of individual sites through a set of planning timeframes (5, 17, 25 and 50 years) and the likely pattern of biological succession over these periods. Results Solutions based on static vegetation distributions were significantly dissimilar from solutions based on the expected modelled changes resulting from the flood disturbance and succession dynamics. Increasing the required reliability of biodiversity outcomes resulted in more expensive reserve solutions. We demonstrated the flexibility of probabilistic decision‐making methods to illuminate the trade‐offs between reliability and efficiency of site selection. Main conclusions Considering the importance of habitat heterogeneity to the principles and practice of systematic conservation planning, it is notable that landscape dynamics have not been a central theme in conservation planning. In the case of the Pantanal hydrosere, acknowledging and planning for temporal dynamics required an ability to model succession and define acceptable levels of outcome reliability, but ultimately improved the long‐term Adequacy of resulting reserve networks.     

Key lessons for achieving biodiversity‐sensitive cities and towns

Australia's urban landscapes offer opportunities to marry socio‐economic and biodiversity conservation objectives. Yet, information is needed on what urban landscape and habitat features are important for wildlife. In this article, we draw together our research from southeastern Australia to describe key lessons for biodiversity‐sensitive cities and towns. Lesson 1: The effects of urbanization on wildlife extend into adjacent habitats. We recommend retaining large, undisturbed areas of habitat away from development, avoiding intensive development adjacent to important conservation areas, prioritizing areas of ecological and social significance, screening light and noise pollution at the urban fringe and around large nature reserves, and planting appropriately provenanced locally native species for public streetscapes, parks and gardens. Lesson 2: Strategic enhancement of urban greenspace offers biodiversity gains. We recommend increasing the total amount of greenspace cover, maintaining ecological structures as habitat islands, using landscaping techniques to minimize risks to human safety, and gardening with low‐flowering native shrubs. Lesson 3: Large old trees need to be managed for long‐term sustainability. We recommend retaining large old trees in new developments, increasing the maximum standing life of urban trees, protecting regenerating areas and planting more seedlings, supplementing habitat features associated with large trees, and ensuring that young trees have space to grow through time. Lesson 4: Education and engagement connects residents with nature and raises awareness. We recommend education programs to enhance opportunities for residents to experience and learn about biodiversity, engaging residents in the establishment and maintenance of wildlife habitat, providing ‘cues to care’, facilitating access to garden plants that benefit wildlife, and encouraging cat containment. These lessons provide an evidence‐base for implementing conservation and management actions to improve the capacity of our cities and towns to support a diverse and abundant biota.     

基于图论的两栖类生物栖息地网络规划——以黑斑侧褶蛙为例

生物多样性保护和生物栖息地网络建设是目前我国国土空间规划的重要内容,提升生物栖息地网络的景观功能连接度对生物多样性保护具有重要作用.目前,已有研究对生物栖息地网络规划进行了探索,但在实际规划层面仍缺乏可操作性强的技术方法支撑.本研究采用图论方法,聚焦国土空间规划中生物多样性保护和生态网络建设涉及的进行生物栖息地斑块重要...     

Methodological standards for nature conservation: casestudy landscape planning

One of the main reasons for the insufficient realisation of nature conservation objectives, especially in competition with land use and development, is the lack of methodological standards. Existing standards are not widely accepted by the users, who often apply very different schemes and techniques for evaluation and monitoring, to work on the same kind of problems. In the complex social context of modern communities, that increasingly rely on standardised regulations, a loss of reliability and public acceptance of results can consequently occur.The demand for methodological standards in nature conservation increased rapidly during the past years, due to a more comprehensive overall concept including used or anthropogeneous ecosystems and landscapes and general globalisation trends, including nature conservation strategies and laws. In Europe the recent development within the European Union, especially the conservation concept of Natura 2000, requires harmonisation of planning, management and monitoring methods.Regardless of this, methodological standardisation is not yet a major topic in nature conservation sciences. Many disadvantages and obstacles of such standards are discussed, such as the fact that the complexity and individuality of nature forbids standardisation in general. However such arguments merge methodological and thematic standardisation. In a 3-year developmental study, the challenges and limits of standardisation in nature conservation were analysed, thematically focusing on conservation-related items of landscape planning in Germany. A board of experts, comprising outstanding conservationists from universities, research institutions and private enterprises produced draft papers for standardisation (called yellow prints). Further representative scientists and conservationists were involved in the stepwise definition of standards. Such drafts are now available for 5 methodological fields of landscape planning (fauna, vegetation, biotopes, evaluation schemes, landscape visions). They represent best practice in German landscape planning in these methodological fields.The developed procedures of standard-setting are applicable to other fields of nature conservation on regional and international levels as well.     

Contrasting habitat use of morphologically similar bat species with differing conservation status in south‐eastern Australia

The east‐coast free‐tailed bat Mormopterus norfolkensis Gray, 1839 is a threatened insectivorous bat that is poorly known and as such conservation management strategies are only broadly prescribed. Insectivorous bats that use human‐modified landscapes are often adapted to foraging in open microhabitats. However, few studies have explored whether open‐adapted bats select landscapes with more of these microhabitat features. We compared three morphologically similar and sympatric, molossid bats (genus Mormopterus) with different conservation status in terms of their association with vegetation, climate, landform and land‐use attributes at landscape and local habitat element scales. We predicted that these species would use similar landscape types, with semi‐cleared and low density urban landscapes used more than forested and heavily cleared landscapes. Additionally, we explored which environmental variables best explained the occurrence of each species by constructing post‐hoc models and habitat suitability maps. Contrary to predictions, we found that the three species varied in their habitat use with no one landscape type used more extensively than other types. Overall, M. norfolkensis was more likely to occur in low‐lying, non‐urban, riparian habitats with little vegetation cover. Mormopterus species 2 occupied similar habitats, but was more tolerant of urban landscapes. In contrast, Mormopterus species 4 occurred more often in cleared than forested landscapes, particularly dry landscapes with little vegetation cover. The extensive use of coastal floodplains by the threatened M. norfolkensis is significant because these habitats are under increasing pressure from human land‐uses and the predicted increase in urbanization is likely to further reduce the amount of suitable habitat.     

基于社会-生态耦合视角的城市边缘区生境服务评估与分区

城市边缘区是城市和乡村交接的社会-生态脆弱区,科学评估其生境服务,对于生物多样性保护与地区可持续发展具有重要意义。在生境服务评估中将社会和生态视角进行整合,有利于制订具有接受度和包容性的保护与管理策略。以上海市青浦区为例,基于社会-生态耦合视角构建“生境质量-生境感知”的生境服务评估框架,综合InVEST模型和SolVES模型开展评估,采用耦合协调度模型分析生境质量和生境感知的耦合协调关系,利用地理探测器探究协调空间分异的影响因素,并进行生境服务分区。结果表明：(1)研究区生境质量整体处于较低水平,空间分布呈“西高东低”格局;生境感知空间分布则多临近水系呈“条带状”格局。(2)生境质量与生境感知的耦合协调程度为轻度失调,且失调单元较多。(3)社会经济因素为耦合协调空间分异的主要影响因素,且多与景观格局因素共同作用。(4)基于生境质量和生境感知的匹配与耦合协调关系,可将研究区划分为4大类、12小类生境服务区,以进行针对性保护与管理。研究结果可为促进人与自然和谐共生的生境综合保护提供参考依据。