Effect of fenarimol on sterol biosynthesis in suspension cultures of bramble cells

Bramble suspension cultures normally contain Δ⁵-sterols (sitosterol, campesterol and isofucosterol). When the cells were grown in a medium supplemented with fenarimol, 14α-methyl sterols accumulated. Eight 14α-methyl sterols, including two new compounds, 4α,14α-dimethyl-stigmasta-8,Z-24(28)-dien-3β-ol and 14α-methyl-stigmasta-8,Z-24(28)-dien-3β-ol, were identified. Fenarimol probably inhibited the 14α-methyl demethylation. Cell lines growing permanently in 2 fenarimol-supplemented medium were obtained.     

Effect of ay-9944 on sterol biosynthesis in Chlorella sorokiniana

When Chlorella sorokiniana was grown in the presence of 4 ppm AY-9944 total sterol production was unaltered in comparison to control cultures. However, inhibition of sterol biosynthesis was shown by the accumulation of a number of sterols which were considered to be intermediates in sterol biosynthesis. The sterols which were found in treated cultures were identified as cyclolaudenol, 4α,14α-dimethyl-9β,19-cyclo-5α-ergost-25-en-3β-ol, 4α,14α-dimethyl -5α-ergosta-8,25-dien-3β-ol, 14α-methyl-9β,19-cyclo-5α-ergost-25-en-3β-ol, 24-methylpollinastanol, 14α-methyl-5α-ergost-8-en-3β-ol, 5α-ergost -8(14)-enol, 5α-ergost-8-enol, 5α-ergosta-8(14),22-dienol, 5α-ergosta-8,22-dienol, 5α-ergosta-8,14-dienol, and 5α-ergosta-7,22-dienol, in addition to the normally occurring sterols which are ergosterol, 5α-ergost-7-enol, and ergosta-5,7-dienol.The occurrence of these sterols in the treated culture indicates that AY-9944 is an effective inhibitor of the Δ⁸ → Δ⁷ isomerase and Δ¹⁴-reductase, and also inhibits introduction of the Δ²²-double bond. The occurrence of 14α-dimethyl-5α-ergosta-8,25-dien-3β-ol and 14α-methyl-9β,19-cyclo-5α-ergost -25-en-3β-ol is reported for the first time in living organisms. The presence of 25-methylene sterols suggests that they, and not 24-methylene derivatives, are intermediates in the biosynthesis of sterols in C. sorokiniana.     

Accumulation of 9β,19-cyclopropyl sterols in suspension cultures of bramble cells cultured with tridemorph

The addition of tridemorph, a systemic fungicide, to the medium of suspension cultures of bramble cells resulted after 4 weeks of growth in a strong accumulation of 9β,19-cyclopropyl sterols (90% of total sterols in treated cells) and in the disappearance of δ⁵-sterols (98% of total sterols in control cells). Cycloeucalenol and 24-methylene pollinastanol (both together constitute 70% of total sterols) are the major sterols of treated cells. Tridemorph probably inhibits the cyclocucalenol-obtusifoliol isomerase. As the fungicide impairs only slightly the growth of the cells, the possibility that 9β,19-cyclopropyl sterols substitute for δ⁵-sterols in the membranes of the treated cells is considered.     

Phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis in celery cell suspension cultures with altered sterol compositions

Cell suspension cultures of celery were treated with the plant growth regulator, paclobutrazol. Lipid analysis revealed that use of this xenobiotic had little effect on the quantity or acyl quality of the major phospholipid classes or on the actual amounts of free sterol present in the cell. It did however, cause dramatic changes in the free sterol profile exhibited by treated cultures. In this respect, an increase in 14α-methylsterols was observed.
The synthesis of phosphatidylcholine in celery cell suspension cultures with altered free sterol compositions was studied using two radiolabelled biosynthetic precursors, [³H-methyl]choline and [³H-methyl]methionine. The studies showed that the rate of phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis via the CDP-base pathway proceeded at a slower rate in paclobutrazol treated cultures. Accumulation of label phosphocholine was observed arising from reduced CTP:cholinephosphatecytidylyltransferase activity. In contrast, phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis via the sequential methylation of ethanolamine derivatives appeared to be enhanced in cells that had an unusually high 14α-methylsterol content. From these investigations it may be postulated that the biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine in Apium graveolens suspension cultures may be regulated by membrane sterol composition.     

Manipulation by 25-azacycloartanol of the relative percentage of C10, C9 and C8 side-chain sterols in suspension cultures of bramble cells

The addition of 25-azacycloartanol to the medium of suspension cultures of bramble cells resulted, after 6 weeks of growth, in a large decrease in the percentage of C₁₀ side-chain sterols, sitosterol and isofucosterol (83 % of the total in the control, 9 % in the treated cells), and in a spectacular increase in the percentage of C₈ side-chain sterols, cycloartenol, desmosterol and cholesterol (less than 1 % in the control, 53 % in the treated cells). In addition the relative percentage of C₉ side-chain sterols, mainly 24-methylene cholesterol increased significantly (from 16 to 37 %). A secondary effect of 25-azacycloartanol consisted in an increase of the percentage of Δ²⁴ sterols and in a decrease of the percentage of sterols with a saturated side chain. These results are in agreement with an inhibition by 25-azacycloartanol of the C-24 and C-28 methyltransferases and of the Δ²⁴ reductase.     

In vitro cyclization of squalene 2,3-epoxide to α-amyrin by microsomes from bramble cell suspension cultures

Squalene 2,3-epoxide incubated with microsomes from bramble cell suspension cultures is shown to be converted into α-amyrin.     

Inhibition of sterol biosynthesis and accumulation of 2,3-oxidosqualene in bramble cell suspension cultures treated with 2-aza-2,3-dihydro-squalene and 2-aza-2,3-dihydrosqualene-N-oxide

2-Aza-2,3-dihydrosqualene (1), 2-aza-2,3-dihydro-squalene-N-oxide (2) and derivatives are new compounds designed to inhibit the 2,3-oxidosqualene-cycloartenol (lanosterol) cyclase. The effects of these compounds were studied on sterol biosynthesis in suspension cultures of bramble cells. Both 1 and 2 inhibited the growth of cells with an IC₅₀ of 11 μM for 1 and 21 μM for 2. When the cells grown in the presence of the two drugs were analysed, accumulation of squalene and 2,3-oxidosqualene was observed but no significant decrease of the total sterol content per g of dry weight of cells was noticed. Pulse experiments with [2-¹⁴C]acetate on 15-day-old cells treated with 1 resulted in a strong decrease of the incorporation of radioactivity into the 4-desmethyl sterol fraction. An IC₅₀ of 7.5 μM was determined when the cells were preincubated for a period of two hr with 1 or 2. This inhibition was correlated with an accumulation of [¹⁴C]-2,3-oxidosqualene and of [¹⁴C]-squalene. No [¹⁴C]-2,3:22(23)-dioxidosqualene was detectable in these conditions. Derivatives of 1 and 2 or similar compounds were also assayed; N-lauryl-dimethylamino-N-oxide (LDAO) was shown to be particularly effective and produced accumulation of enormous amounts of [¹⁴C]-2,3-oxidosqualene. Compound 1 (but not 2 or LDAO) leads also to the accumulation of a red pigment identified as lycopene. Our work confirms studies with enzymatic systems in demonstrating that 1, 2 and LDAO inhibit the 2,3-oxidosqualene-cycloartenol cyclase and provides evidence that the squalene synthetase and the Δ⁸ → Δ⁷-sterol isomerase are also inhibited.     

Methyl jasmonate-induced rosmarinic acid biosynthesis in Lithospermum erythrorhizon cell suspension cultures

Summary A dramatic increase in rosmarinic acid (RA) content in cultured cells of Lithospermum erythrorhizon was observed after their exposure to methyl jasmonate (MJ). Preceding the induced RA accumulation, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate reductase (HPR) activities increased rapidly and transiently, whereas tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) activity showed only a slight increase. The elicitation activity of MJ was much higher than that of yeast extract (YE) in terms of the induction of PAL and HPR activities, RA accumulation and incorporation of both ¹⁴C-phenylalanine and ¹⁴C-tyrosine into RA. However, the response of the cultured cells to MJ-treatment was slower than that to YE-treatment.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - LS Linsmaier and Skoog - HPR 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate reductase - PAL phenylalanine ammonia-lyase - TAT tyrosine aminotransferase - MJ methyl jasmonate - YE yeast extract     

盾叶薯蓣悬浮培养细胞生长及薯蓣皂苷元合成

研究了盾叶薯蓣细胞悬浮培养过程中细胞生长、薯蓣皂苷元合成、蔗糖和磷酸盐的吸收利用以及酸性磷酸酶活性与薯蓣皂苷元合成的关系。结果表明,对数生长期细胞最大比生长速率μm为0.19 d-1;倍增时间为3.68 d;薯蓣皂苷元的形成与细胞的生长相关,培养6 d时薯蓣皂苷元质量分数和产量分别为0.20%和25.93 mg/L;蔗糖利用率达到95.65%,磷酸盐吸收率达到最大,为90.36%。盾叶薯蓣细胞悬浮培养过程中酸性磷酸酶活性动态变化规律与薯蓣皂苷元的动态合成规律基本一致。此外,研究还发现在相同供磷水平下,酸性磷酸酶活性高低与薯蓣皂苷元合成能力呈正相关;而在不同供磷水平下,酸性磷酸酶活性高低与薯蓣皂苷元合成能力没有相关性。     

Induction of rosmarinic acid biosynthesis in Lithospermum erythrorhizon cell suspension cultures by yeast extract

Summary A transient increase in rosmarinic acid (RA) content in cultured cells of Lithospermum erythrorhizon was observed after addition of yeast extract (YE) to the suspension cultures, reaching a maximum at 24 hr. The highest increase of the RA content (2.5-fold) was obtained when 6-day-old cells in the exponential growth phase were treated with YE. Preceding the induced RA accumulation, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity increased rapidly, whereas tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) activity was largely unaffected by the treatment. The incorporation of both ¹⁴C-phenylalanine and ¹⁴C-tyrosine into RA was enhanced in the YE-treated cells, consistent with increased synthesis of the ester.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - PAL phenylalanine ammonia-lyase - TAT tyrosine aminotransferase - RA rosmarinic acid - YE yeast extract     

甾醇C-24甲基转移酶和甾醇C-8异构酶在酿酒酵母麦角甾醇生物合成中的调控作用

摘要：【目的】研究ERG6基因编码的甾醇C-24甲基转移酶和ERG2基因编码的甾醇C-8异构酶在酿酒酵母麦角甾醇生物合成代谢中的调控作用。【方法】通过PCR扩增克隆到酿酒酵母甾醇C-8异构酶的编码序列及其终止子序列,以大肠杆菌-酿酒酵母穿梭质粒YEp352为载体,以磷酸甘油酸激酶基因PGK1启动子为上游调控元件构建了酵母菌表达质粒pPERG2;同时,在本实验室已构建的ERG6表达质粒pPERG6的基础上,构建了ERG2和ERG6共表达的重组质粒pPERG6-2。将表达质粒转化酿酒酵母单倍体菌株YS58,依据营养缺陷互补筛选到重组菌株YS58(pPERG2)和YS58(pPERG6-2)。通过紫外分光光度法和气相色谱法分析重组菌株甾醇组分和含量。【结果】在ERG6高表达的重组酵母菌中,甾醇中间体和终产物麦角甾醇的含量均比对照菌高;而在ERG2高表达的酵母菌株中,无论甾醇中间体,还是麦角甾醇的含量均明显降低。ERG6和ERG2共表达重组菌株YS58(pPERG6-2)的麦角甾醇含量是对照菌株YS58(YEp352)的1.41倍,是ERG2单独高表达菌株YS58(pPERG2)的1.92倍,是ERG6单独高表达菌株YS58(pPERG6)的1.12倍。【结论】本研究首次证明甾醇C-24甲基转移酶催化的反应是酿酒酵母麦角甾醇合成代谢途径中的一个重要的限速步骤,该酶活性提高不但补偿了ERG2高表达对甾醇合成的负效应,而且使麦角甾醇含量进一步提高,为构建麦角甾醇高产酵母工程菌株提供了实验依据。     

A reappraisal of sterol biosynthesis and metabolism in aphids

Aphids of Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) (biotype C) reared on its host-plant, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, sequestered campesterol, stigmasterol and sitosterol. Aphids reared for 72 hr on holidic diets supplemented with [4-¹⁴C]-sitosterol contained both [¹⁴C]-sitosterol and [¹⁴C]-cholesterol, indicating that these aphids are capable of dealkylation at C-24. When aphids were reared on artificial diets containing [2-¹⁴C]-mevalonic acid, no detectable amounts of radioactively labelled desmethyl sterols, nor metabolic intermediates in sterol synthesis (i.e. squalene, 2,3-oxidosqualene, 4,4-dimethyl and 4-monomethyl sterols) were found to accumulate in their tissues. The relevance of these findings to previous research suggesting the ability of aphids, via their symbiotes, to synthesize sterols is discussed.     

Effects of ethephon and norbornadiene on sterol and glycoalkaloid biosynthesis in potato tuber discs

The accumulation of glycoalkaloids that normally takes place in aerobically incubated potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) tuber discs has been found to be inhibited by the ethylene-releasing substance ethephon. Using ethephon and the ethylene action inhibitor norborna-2,5-diene, the effect of ethylene on the synthesis of sterols and glycoalkaloids, which partly share their biosynthetic pathway, was investigated.
Control discs showed incorporation of (2-¹⁴C)mevalonic acid into free sterols, steryl esters, steryl glycosides and acylated steryl glycosides at 24 h, thereafter the radioactivity decreased in free sterols and steryl esters concomitant with the appearance of radioactivity in glycoalkaloids. Discs with ethephon additions contained more radioactivity in all sterol classes at all time-points, but no glycoalkaloids were formed.
The enzyme S-adenosyl- l -methionine:sterol C24 methyltransferase (SMT, EC 2. 1. 1. 41), located at one presumed branching point in the sterol and glycoalkaloid pathway, was characterized and found to exhibit similar characteristics as in other plants, but a lower specific activity. The activity of SMT increased in ageing tuber discs and this increase was further stimulated by ethephon, but inhibited by norborna-2,5-diene. The activity of the glycoalkaloid-specific enzyme UDP-glucose:solanidine glucosyltransferase (EC 2. 4. 1) also increased after slicing, but here ethephon additions counteracted the induction. The activity of the sterol-specific UDP-glucose:sterol glucosyltransferase (EC 2. 4. 1) was unaffected by either tuber slicing or ethephon additions.
The results indicate that ethylene stimulates sterol synthesis in wounded potato discs, and that the wound-induction of SMT is regulated by ethylene.     

Regulation of sterol biosynthesis in etiolated mung bean hypocotyl sections

The incorporation of radioactivity into sterols by transmethylation of methionine-[¹⁴C-methyl] was studied in mung bean hypocotyl sections. Young hypocotyl sections (1 cm) synthesized 4 times more radioactive sterols than older sections (5 cm). The transmethylation reactions may be rate limiting in older tissues. Wounding has only a quantitative effect on sterol biosynthesis, as seen by incorporation experiments with MVA-[2-¹⁴C]. Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) stimulates sterol biosynthesis in both wounded surfaces and intact tissues of mung bean hypocotyl sections.     

The independence of photosynthesis and aerobiosis from sterol biosynthesis in bacteria

Sterols were present in neither of two representative species of photosynthetic bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas spheroides and Chromatium vinosum. These organisms were grown under conditions commonly viewed as anaerobic. However, such conditions did not prevent Saccharomyces cerevisiae from biosynthesizing sterols, although they did induce accumulation of both 4,4-dimethyl and 4-desmethyl intermediates. Since the photosynthetic organisms did not biosynthesize sterols, bacterial photosynthesis must not be mated genetically or functionally to sterol biosynthesis. In contrast to what the literature records, Escherichia coli, grown under fully aerobic conditions, also failed to contain sterols which indicates that bacterial aerobiosis does not necessarily imply either the presence of sterol biosynthesis or a requirement for an exogenous source of sterols. Among the lipids of E. coli was a substance with the formula C₁₆H₃₂O₂ which moved in silica gel TLC at a rate similar to that of sterols and may have been a keto-alcohol of the same formula already isolated from coliforms. In the photosynthetic bacteria the major neutral lipid after saponification was phytol, in agreement with expectation based on the presence of bacteriochlorophyll-a.     

Lanosterol biosynthesis in the prokaryote Methylococcus capsulatus: insight into the evolution of sterol biosynthesis

A putative operon containing homologues of essential eukaryotic sterol biosynthetic enzymes, squalene monooxygenase and oxidosqualene cyclase, has been identified in the genome of the prokaryote Methylococcus capsulatus. Expression of the squalene monooxygenase yielded a protein associated with the membrane fraction, while expression of oxidosqualene cyclase yielded a soluble protein, contrasting with the eukaryotic enzyme forms. Activity studies with purified squalene monooxygenase revealed a catalytic activity in epoxidation of 0.35 nmol oxidosqualene produced/min/nmol squalene monooxygenase, while oxidosqualene cyclase catalytic activity revealed cyclization of oxidosqualene to lanosterol with 0.6 nmol lanosterol produced/min/nmol oxidosqualene cyclase and no other products observed. The presence of prokaryotic sterol biosynthesis is still regarded as rare, and these are the first representatives of such prokaryotic enzymes to be studied, providing new insight into the evolution of sterol biosynthesis in general.     

Hormonal control of sterol biosynthesis in Phaseolus aureus

Naphthalene acetic acid increased the sterol content of mung bean hypocotyl sections mainly in the zone of elongation growth. The increased sterol synthesis can be explained by a stimulated conversion rate of cycloartenol into sterols. During the 20-hr incubation period the stigmasterol: sitosterol ratio increased considerably.     

7-Oxo-24ξ(28)-dihydrocycloeucalenol,a potent inhibitor of plant sterol biosynthesis

Cycloeucalenol-obtusifoliol isomerase from higher plant cells catalyses the opening of the cyclopropane ring of cycloeucalenol yielding obtusifoliol. 7-Oxo-24ξ(28)-dihydrocycloeucalenol was not a substrate but behaved like a potent inhibitor of the isomerase. The inhibition was reversible and highly specific; the inhibitor needed the presence of the 7-oxo group, the cyclopropane ring and the absence of a 4β-methyl group to be active. Other enzymes involved in plant sterol biosynthesis such as 2, 3-oxidosqualene-cycloartenol cyclase and S-adenosyl methionine cycloartenol C-24 methyltransferase were not inhibited by 7-oxo-24ξ(28)-dihydrocycloeucalenol. In vivo treatment of a suspension of bramble cells growing in a liquid medium with 7-oxo-24ξ(28)-dihydrocycloeucalenol resulted in a strong accumulation of 9β 19-cyclopropyl sterols confirming that the main cellular target of the inhibitor is the cycloeucalenol-obtusifoliol isomerase.