Spin-trapping of the trichloromethyl radical produced during enzymic NADPH oxidation in the presence of carbon tetrachloride or bromotrichloromethane

Utilizing the spin-trapping agent phenyl-t-butyl nitrone, a free radical has been detected which is produced from carbon tetrachloride or bromotrichloromethane during the enzymic oxidation of NADPH by rat liver microsomes. The presence of NADPH is obligatory for generation of the radical.The formation of the trichloromethyl radical-phenyl-t-butyl nitrone adduct is an enzymic process, as evidenced by the inhibition of its formation in systems containing heated microsomes and in systems containing p-hydroxymercuribenzoate. A computer-simulated ESR spectrum for the trichloromethyl adduct of phenyl-t-butyl nitrone can reproduce the essential features of the spectrum of the spin-trapped radical produced enzymically from CCl₄. A mechanism is proposed for the formation of the trichloromethyl radical from CCl₄ or BrCCl₃.     

PEG conjugates of potent α4 integrin inhibitors,maintaining sustained levels and bioactivity in vivo,following subcutaneous administration

Mitsunobu reactions were employed to link t-butyl esters of α4 integrin inhibitors at each of the termini of a three-arm, 40 kDa, branched PEG. Cleavage of the t-butyl esters using HCO₂H provided easily isolated PEG derivatives, which are potent α4 integrin inhibitors, and which achieve sustained levels and bioactivity in vivo, following subcutaneous administration to rats.     

Methyl t-Butyl Ether Mineralization in Surface-Water Sediment Microcosms under Denitrifying Conditions

Mineralization of [U-¹⁴C]methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) to ¹⁴CO₂ without accumulation of t-butyl alcohol (TBA) was observed in surface-water sediment microcosms under denitrifying conditions. Methanogenic activity and limited transformation of MTBE to TBA were observed in the absence of denitrification. Results indicate that bed sediment microorganisms can effectively degrade MTBE to nontoxic products under denitrifying conditions.     

Kinetics of oxidation of ferrocene by tris-1,10-phenanthrolinecobalt(III) in t-butyl alcoholwater and acetonewater mixtures

Rate constants and activation parameters (ΔH^≠ and ΔS^≠)are reported for the oxidation of ferrocene by the tris-1,10-phenanthrolinecobalt(III) cation in t-butyl alcoholwater and in acetonewater solvent mixtures. Solvent effects on reactivity trends for these systems, for this same reaction in methanolwater mixtures, and for cobalt(II)-catalysed racemisation of Co(phen)_3³⁺ in t-butyl alcoholwater solvent mixtures are analysed into initial state and transition state contributions. The dependences of solubilities on solvent composition for ferrocene and for [Co(phen)₃](ClO₄)₃ in methanol, t-butyl alcohol, and acetonewater mixtures are also reported; these results are needed in order to establish solvent effects on the initial states of the reactions studied.     

Potent transglutaminase inhibitors,aryl β-aminoethyl ketones

Aryl β-aminoethyl ketones were discovered as potent inhibitors of tissue transglutaminase. Heteroaryl-like thiophene groups and N-benzyl N-t-butyl aminoethyl group are critical to the strong inhibitory activity of aryl β-aminoethyl ketones.     

Enzymatic preparation of optically pure t-butyl 6-chloro-(3R,5S)-dihydroxyhexanoate by a novel alcohol dehydrogenase discovered from Klebsiella oxytoca

Alcohol dehydrogenases can catalyze the inter-conversion of aldehydes and alcohols. The t-butyl 6-chloro-(3R,5S)-dihydroxyhexanoate is a key chiral intermediate in the synthesis of statin-type drugs such as Crestor (rosuvastatin calcium) and Lipitor (atorvastatin). Herein, a novel alcohol dehydrogenase (named as KleADH) discovered from Klebsiella oxytoca by a genome mining method was cloned and characterized. The KleADH was functionally overexpressed in Escherichia coli Rosetta (DE3) and the whole cell biocatalyst was able to convert t-butyl 6-chloro-(5S)-hydroxy-3-oxohexanoate to t-butyl 6-chloro-(3R,5S)-dihydroxyhexanoate with more than 99% diastereomeric excess (de) and 99% conversion in 24 h without adding any expensive cofactors. Several factors influencing the whole cell catalyst activity such as temperature, pH, the effects of metal ions and organic solvent were determined. The optimum enzyme activity was achieved at 30 °C and pH 7.0 and it was shown that 1 mM Fe³⁺ can increase the enzyme activity by 1.2 times. N-hexane/water and n-heptane/water biphasic systems can also increase the activity of KleADH. Substrate specificity studies showed that KleADH also exhibited notable activity towards several aryl ketones with high stereoselectivity. Our investigation on this novel alcohol dehydrogenase KleADH reveals a promising biocatalyst for producing chiral alcohols for preparation of valuable pharmaceuticals.     

Synthesis of coumarin derivatives and their cytoprotective effects on t-BHP-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells

Coumarins are ubiquitous in higher plants and exhibit various biological actions. The aim of this study was to investigate the structure-activity relationships of coumarin derivatives on tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative damage in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. A series of coumarin derivatives were prepared and assessed for their cytoprotective effects. Among these, a caffeoyl acid-conjugated dihydropyranocoumarin derivative, caffeoyllomatin, efficiently protected against cell damage elicited by t-BHP. Our findings suggest that caffeoyllomatin appears to be a potent cytoprotective agent.     

HTHQ (1-O-hexyl-2,3,5-trimethylhydroquinone), an anti-lipid-peroxidative compound: its chemical and biochemical characterizations

Recently, it has become apparent that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play many important roles in biological systems. For example, relationships between many diseases, such as cancer, cardiac infarction and arteriosclerosis, and ROS have been found. It is also well known that anti-oxidative agents scavenge ROS in biological systems, which in turn prevents ROS-related diseases. In our previous efforts to develop effective anti-oxidative compounds, we found that 1-O-hexyl-2,3,5-trimethylhydroquinone (HTHQ), which is a hydroquinone monoalkyl ether, is a potent anti-oxidative agent. Here, the scavenging activities of HTHQ against ROS, such as superoxide anion radicals, hydroxyl radicals, t-butyl peroxyl radicals and singlet oxygens, were examined by the ESR (electron spin resonance)-spin trapping method. Among ROS, HTHQ scavenged t-butyl peroxyl radicals most effectively (IC₅₀=0.31±0.04 mM), showing approximately twice the activity of a well-known lipophilic anti-oxidant, d,l-α-tocopherol (IC₅₀=0.67±0.06 mM), as measured by IC₅₀ values defined as the 50% inhibition concentration of the generated ROS. In addition, a relatively stable ESR spectrum of free radicals due to HTHQ was observed during the reaction of HTHQ and t-butyl peroxyl radicals, indicating a direct reaction of HTHQ and t-butyl peroxyl radicals. The free radicals due to HTHQ were more stable than those derived from d,l-α-tocopherol under the same conditions examined. On the basis of these results, we evaluated anti-lipid-peroxidative activity of HTHQ in three systems involving micelles, liposomes and rat liver microsomes. HTHQ exhibited a similar anti-oxidative activity to that of d,l-α-tocopherol against lipid peroxidation in linolate micelles initiated by addition of Fe²⁺. On the other hand, HTHQ exhibited approximately 4.8-fold higher anti-lipid-peroxidation activity than that of d,l-α-tocopherol against the peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomes initiated by addition of Fe²⁺. Furthermore, HTHQ scavenged the lipid peroxides at a rate approximately 150 times higher than that of d,l-α-tocopherol against Fe³⁺-ADP-induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes, indicating that the anti-lipid-peroxidation activity of HTHQ might be substantially elevated in biological systems in comparison with that of d,l-α-tocopherol. Based on these results, we suggest that HTHQ reacts directly with peroxyl radicals, such as t-butyl peroxyl radicals and peroxides of linolate micelles, liposomes and microsomes, by scavenging them to form stable free radicals. The resulting free radicals are presumed to be reduced by several reducing mechanisms in biological systems similarly to those of d,l-α-tocopherol, and then the lipid-peroxidation reactions will be terminated. In conclusion, HTHQ was found to be a potent anti-lipid-peroxidative compound and its anti-oxidation activity to be extremely elevated in biological systems, such as that of liver microsomes via the generation of stable free radicals. We propose that HTHQ is a potent anti-oxidative agent for use in future treatments for lipid-peroxide relevant diseases.     

Kinetics of Methyl t-Butyl Ether Cometabolism at Low Concentrations by Pure Cultures of Butane-Degrading Bacteria

Butane-oxidizing Arthrobacter (ATCC 27778) bacteria were shown to degrade low concentrations of methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE; range, 100 to 800 μg/liter) with an apparent half-saturation concentration (K_s) of 2.14 mg/liter and a maximum substrate utilization rate (k_c) of 0.43 mg/mg of total suspended solids per day. Arthrobacter bacteria demonstrated MTBE degradation activity when grown on butane but not when grown on glucose, butanol, or tryptose phosphate broth. The presence of butane, tert-butyl alcohol, or acetylene had a negative impact on the MTBE degradation rate. Neither Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b nor Streptomyces griseus was able to cometabolize MTBE.     

Promotion or suppression of glucose isomerization in subcritical aqueous straight- and branched-chain alcohols

The influence of water-miscible alcohols (methanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, and t-butyl alcohol) on the isomerization of glucose to fructose and mannose was investigated under subcritical aqueous conditions (180–200 °C). Primary and secondary alcohols promoted the conversion and isomerization of glucose to afford fructose and mannose with high and low selectivity, respectively. On the other hand, the decomposition (side-reaction) of glucose was suppressed in the presence of the primary and secondary alcohols compared with that in subcritical water. The yield of fructose increased with increasing concentration of the primary and secondary alcohols, and the species of the primary and secondary alcohols tested had little effect on the isomerization behavior of glucose. In contrast, the isomerization of glucose was suppressed in subcritical aqueous t-butyl alcohol. Both the conversion of glucose and the yield of fructose decreased with increasing concentration of t-butyl alcohol. In addition, mannose was not detected in reactions using subcritical aqueous t-butyl alcohol.     

Partial contribution of mitochondrial permeability transition to t-butyl hydroperoxide-induced cell death

Mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) is thought to determine cell death under oxidative stress. However, MPT inhibitors only partially suppress oxidative stress-induced cell death. Here, we demonstrate that cells in which MPT is inhibited undergo cell death under oxidative stress. When C6 cells were exposed to 250 μM t-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH), the loss of a membrane potential-sensitive dye (tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester, TMRE) from mitochondria was observed, indicating mitochondrial depolarization leading to cell death. The fluorescence of calcein entrapped in mitochondria prior to addition of t-BuOOH was significantly decreased to 70% after mitochondrial depolarization. Cyclosporin A suppressed the decrease in mitochondrial calcein fluorescence, but not mitochondrial depolarization. These results show that t-BuOOH induced cell death even when it did not induce MPT. Prior to MPT, lactate production and respiration were hampered. Taken together, these data indicate that the decreased turnover rate of glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration may be as vital as MPT for cell death induced under moderate oxidative stress.     

Asymmetric epoxidation of alkenes using a mixed-ligand complex of ruthenium(III) containing a sugar-based ligand

A mixed-ligand ruthenium(III) catalyst complex, [Ru^III(TDL*)(bipy)(H₂O)]Cl (1) (TDL* = N-3,5-di-(t-butyl)salicylidine-d-glucosamine; bipy = 2,2′-bipyridine) exhibited catalytic activity toward enantioselective alkene epoxidation using tert-butyl hydroperoxide as terminal oxidant. Styrene, 4-chlorostyrene, 4-methylstyrene, 4-methoxystyrene, 1-methylcyclohexene and 1,2-dihydronaphthalene were effectively converted to their organic epoxides with moderate enantioselectivity (37-47% ee) at ambient temperature. A mechanism involving the formation of a high-valent Ru(V)-oxo species, and the subsequent oxo-transfer to the alkene through a metallaoxetane intermediate is proposed.     

Gymnaster koraiensis and its major components, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid and gymnasterkoreayne B,reduce oxidative damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide or acetaminophen in HepG2 cells

We investigated the protective effects of Gymnaster koraiensis against oxidative stress-induced hepatic cell damage. We used two different cytotoxicity models, i.e., the administration of tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) and acetaminophen, in HepG2 cells to evaluate the protective effects of G. koraiensis. The ethyl acetate (EA) fraction of G. koraiensis and its major compound, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (DCQA), exerted protective effects in the t-BHP-induced liver cytotoxicity model. The EA fraction and DCQA ameliorated t-BHP-induced reductions in GSH levels and exhibited free radical scavenging activity. The EA fraction and DCQA also significantly reduced t-BHP-induced DNA damage in HepG2 cells. Furthermore, the hexane fraction of G. koraiensis and its major compound, gymnasterkoreayne B (GKB), exerted strong hepatoprotection in the acetaminopheninduced cytotoxicity model. CYP 3A4 enzyme activity was strongly inhibited by the extract, hexane fraction, and GKB. The hexane fraction and GKB ameliorated acetaminophen-induced reductions in GSH levels and protected against cell death. [BMB Reports 2013; 46(10): 513-518]     

Glycosyl hydroperoxides derived from 2-deoxysugars

Oxidation of 3,4,6-tri-O-benzyl-2-deoxy-d-glucose and d-galactose or their t-butyl glycosides to the corresponding glycosyl hydroperoxides can be performed with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an acid catalyst. Several reaction conditions and their influence on the effectiveness of the oxidation are discussed. Separation of the α - and β-anomers of the glycosyl hydroperoxides was achieved through mixed peroxide formation by reaction of the hydroperoxide group with 2-methoxypropene and subsequent deprotection.     

Selectivity in aromatic substitution: Effects of functionalized detergents on the chlorination of phenol

The regioselectivity of chlorination of phenol in aqueous solution of an anionic detergent functionalized at its head group is shown to be similar to chlorination effects by t-butyl hypochlorite in aqueous sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution. ortho Chlorination is promoted in both micellar solutions. However, when chlorination is mediated by detergents carrying no charge at their functionalized head groups, selectivity depends on micellar concentration with para chlorination predominating at high detergent concentrations. The problems and advantages inherent in head group functionalization are discussed.     

A Simple Purification Method for Chloroperoxidase and Its Use in Organic Media

A simple two-step purification method for chloroperoxidase from Caldariomyces fumago has been developed. After filtration of the mycelium the enzyme was bound to a DEAE Sepharose fast flow column. The enzyme was eluted with a 20–200 mM phosphate buffer, pH=5.8. After gel filtration on a Superose 12 HPLC column pure enzyme was obtained. Instead of gel filtration it was also possible to purify the enzyme by concentration over a membrane filter, 10 K cutoff. Concentration to 8% of the original volume yielded an enzyme preparation with R_z=1.31^b in 77% yield. The enzyme was active in t-butyl alcohol/water mixtures up to 70% t-butyl alcohol. The sulfoxidation of thioanisole proceeded readily (conversion > 99%) and with high enantioselectivity (>99%) in t-butyl alochol/water mixtures.     

Making M–CN bonds from M–Cl in (PONOP)M and (dippe)Ni systems (M = Ni, Pd, and Pt) using t-BuNC

C–N bond activation of tert-butyl isocyanide in methanol using 2,6-bis(di-tert-butylphosphinito)pyridine (PONOP) metal (Ni, Pd, Pt) complexes and (dippe)NiCl₂ are reported. t-BuOMe and t-BuCl were detected as organic products by GC–MS. Substitution of the metal-chloride by one molecule of tert-butyl isocyanide followed by carbonium ion loss/nucleophilic attack by chloride anion or methanol led to formation of a metal-cyanide bond.     

Overexpression of NYGGF4 (PID1) induces mitochondrial impairment in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Oxidative stress induced by toxicants is known to cause various complications in the liver. Herbal drug such as Liv.52 is found to have hepatoprotective effect. However, the biochemical mechanism involved in the Liv.52 mediated protection against toxicity is not well elucidated using suitable in vitro models. Hence, in the present study, the hepatoprotective effect of Liv.52 against oxidative damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) in HepG2 cells was evaluated in order to relate in vitro antioxidant activity with cytoprotective effects. Cytotoxicity was measured by MTT assay. Antioxidant effect of Liv.52 was determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, and lipid peroxidation and measurement of non-enzymic and antioxidant enzymes in HepG2 cells exposed to t-BHP over a period of 24 h. The results obtained indicate that t-BHP induced cell damage in HepG2 cells as shown by significant increase in lipid peroxidation as well as decreased levels of reduced glutathione (GSH). Liv.52 significantly decreased toxicity induced by t-BHP in HepG2 cells. Liv.52 was also significantly decreased lipid peroxidation and prevented GSH depletion in HepG2 cells induced by t-BHP. Therefore, Liv.52 appeared to be important for cell survival when exposed to t-BHP. The protective effect of Liv.52 against cell death evoked by t-BHP was probably achieved by preventing intracellular GSH depletion and lipid peroxidation. The results showed protective effect of Liv.52 against oxidative damage induced in HepG2 cells. Hence, taken together, these findings derived from the present study suggest the beneficial effect of Liv.52 in regulating oxidative stress induced in liver by toxicants.     

Tryparedoxin Peroxidase of Leishmania donovani: Molecular Cloning, Heterologous Expression, Specificity, and Catalytic Mechanism

Tryparedoxin peroxidase (TXNPx) of Trypanosomatidae is the terminal peroxidase of a complex redox cascade that detoxifies hydroperoxides by NADPH (Nogoceke et al., Biol. Chem. 378, 827-836, 1997). A gene putatively coding for a peroxiredoxin-type TXNPx was identified in L. donovani and expressed in Escherichia coli to yield an N-terminally His-tagged protein (LdH6TXNPx). LdH6TXNPx proved to be an active peroxidase with tryparedoxin (TXN) 1 and 2 of Crithidia fasciculata as cosubstrates. LdH6TXNPx efficiently reduces H₂O₂, is moderately active with t-butyl and cumene hydroperoxide, but only marginally with linoleic acid hydroperoxide and phosphatidyl choline hydroperoxide. The enzyme displays ping-pong kinetics with a k_cat of 11.2 s⁻¹ and limiting K_m values for t-butyl hydroperoxide and CfTXN1 of 50 and 3.6 μM, respectively. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that C52 and C173, as in related peroxiredoxins, are involved in catalysis. Exchanges of R128 against D and T49 against S and V, supported by molecular modelling, further disclose that the SH group of C52 builds the center of a novel catalytic triad. By hydrogen bonding with the OH of T49 and by the positive charge of R128 the solvent-exposed thiol of C52 becomes deprotonated to react with ROOH. Molecular models of oxidized TXNPx show C52 disulfide-bridged with C173′ that can be attacked by C41 of TXN2. By homology, the deduced mechanism may apply to most peroxiredoxins and complements current views of peroxiredoxin catalysis.