Translational Regulation of NeuroD1 Expression by FMRP: Involvement in Glutamatergic Neuronal Differentiation of Cultured Rat Primary Neural Progenitor Cells

Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) is encoded by Fmr1 gene in which mutation is known to cause fragile X syndrome characterized by mental impairment and other psychiatric symptoms similar to autism spectrum disorders. FMRP plays important roles in cellular mRNA biology such as transport, stability, and translation as an RNA-binding protein. In the present study, we identified potential role of FMRP in the neural differentiation, using cortical neural progenitor cells from Sprague–Dawley rat. We newly found NeuroD1, an essential regulator of glutamatergic neuronal differentiation, as a new mRNA target interacting with FMRP in co-immunoprecipitation experiments. We also identified FMRP as a regulator of neuronal differentiation by modulating NeuroD1 expression. Down-regulation of FMRP by siRNA also increased NeuroD1 expression along with increased pre- and post-synaptic development of glutamatergic neuron, as evidenced by Western blot and immunocytochemistry. On the contrary, cells harboring FMRP over-expression construct showed decreased NeuroD1 expression. Treatment of cultured neural precursor cells with a histone deacetylase inhibitor, valproic acid known as an inducer of hyper-glutamatergic neuronal differentiation, down-regulated the expression of FMRP, and induced NeuroD1 expression. Our study suggests that modulation of FMRP expression regulates neuronal differentiation by interaction with its binding target mRNA, and provides an example of the gene and environmental interaction regulating glutamatergic neuronal differentiation.     

Epigenetic regulation of sensory neurogenesis in the dorsal root ganglion cell line ND7 by folic acid

The epigenetic mechanism of folic acid (FA) action on dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cell proliferation and sensory neuron differentiation is not well understood. In this study, the ND7 cell line, derived from DRG cells, was used to elucidate this mechanism. In ND7 cells differentiated with dbcAMP and NGF, Hes1 and Pax3 levels decreased, whereas Neurog2 levels showed a modest increase. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays examining epigenetic marks at the Hes1 promoter showed that FA favored increased H3K9 and H3K19 acetylation and decreased H3K27 methylation. Hence, FA plays a positive role in cell proliferation. In differentiated ND7 cells, H3K27 methylation decreased, whereas H3K9 and H3K18 acetylation increased at the Neurog2 promoter. FA did not favor this phenotypic outcome. Additionally, in differentiated ND7 Neurog2 associated with the NeuroD1 promoter, FA decreased this association. The results suggest that the switch from proliferation to sensory neuron differentiation in DRG cells is regulated by alterations in epigenetic marks, H3K9/18 acetylation and H3K27 methylation, at Hes1 and Neurog2 promoters, as well as by Neurog2 association with NeuroD1 promoter. FA although positive for proliferation, does not appear to play a role in differentiation.     

NeuroD regulates neuronal migration

NeuroD is required for the survival of many subtypes of developing neurons in the vertebrate central nervous system. Because NeuroD-deficient neurons in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and inner ear die prematurely in the early stage of neurogenesis, the role of NeuroD during the later stages of neurogenesis of these cell subtypes is not well understood. In addition, the mechanism of NeuroD-deficient neuronal death has not been investigated. It was hypothesized that NeuroD-dependent neuronal death occurs through a Bax-dependent apoptotic pathway. Based on this hypothesis, this study attempted to rescue neuronal cell death by deleting the Bax gene in NeuroD null mice to investigate the role of NeuroD in surviving neurons. The NeuroD and Bax double null mice displayed a decrease in the number of apoptotic cells in the hippocampus and the cerebellum and the rescue of vestibulocochlear ganglion (VCG) neurons that failed to migrate and innervate. In addition, at E13.5, the NeuroD^−/−Bax^−/− VCG neurons failed to express TrkB and TrkC, which are known to be essential for the survival of those neurons. These data suggest that neuronal death in NeuroD null mice is mediated by Bax-dependent apoptosis and that NeuroD is required for the migration of VCG neurons. Finally, these data show that TrkB and TrkC expression in E13.5 VCG neurons requires NeuroD and that TrkB and TrkC expression may be necessary for the normal migration and innervations of those neurons.     

Neurod1 Suppresses Hair Cell Differentiation in Ear Ganglia and Regulates Hair Cell Subtype Development in the Cochlea

Background

At least five bHLH genes regulate cell fate determination and differentiation of sensory neurons, hair cells and supporting cells in the mammalian inner ear. Cross-regulation of Atoh1 and Neurog1 results in hair cell changes in Neurog1 null mice although the nature and mechanism of the cross-regulation has not yet been determined. Neurod1, regulated by both Neurog1 and Atoh1, could be the mediator of this cross-regulation.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used Tg(Pax2-Cre) to conditionally delete Neurod1 in the inner ear. Our data demonstrate for the first time that the absence of Neurod1 results in formation of hair cells within the inner ear sensory ganglia. Three cell types, neural crest derived Schwann cells and mesenchyme derived fibroblasts (neither expresses Neurod1) and inner ear derived neurons (which express Neurod1) constitute inner ear ganglia. The most parsimonious explanation is that Neurod1 suppresses the alternative fate of sensory neurons to develop as hair cells. In the absence of Neurod1, Atoh1 is expressed and differentiates cells within the ganglion into hair cells. We followed up on this effect in ganglia by demonstrating that Neurod1 also regulates differentiation of subtypes of hair cells in the organ of Corti. We show that in Neurod1 conditional null mice there is a premature expression of several genes in the apex of the developing cochlea and outer hair cells are transformed into inner hair cells.

Conclusions/Significance

Our data suggest that the long noted cross-regulation of Atoh1 expression by Neurog1 might actually be mediated in large part by Neurod1. We suggest that Neurod1 is regulated by both Neurog1 and Atoh1 and provides a negative feedback for either gene. Through this and other feedback, Neurod1 suppresses alternate fates of neurons to differentiate as hair cells and regulates hair cell subtypes.     

GM1 Ganglioside is Involved in Epigenetic Activation Loci of Neuronal Cells

Gangliosides are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids that are most abundant in the nerve tissues. The quantity and expression pattern of gangliosides in brain change drastically throughout development and are mainly regulated through stage-specific expression of glycosyltransferase (ganglioside synthase) genes. We previously demonstrated that acetylation of histones H3 and H4 on the N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase I (GalNAcT, GA2/GM2/GD2/GT2-synthase) gene promoter resulted in recruitment of trans-activation factors. In addition, we reported that epigenetic activation of the GalNAcT gene was also detected as accompanied by an apparent induction of neuronal differentiation in neural stem cells responding to an exogenous supplement of ganglioside GM1. Here, we present evidence supporting the concept that nuclear GM1 is associated with gene regulation in neuronal cells. We found that nuclear GM1 binds acetylated histones on the promoters of the GalNAcT and NeuroD1 genes in differentiated neurons. Our study demonstrates for the first time that GM1 interacts with chromatin via acetylated histones at the nuclear periphery of neuronal cells.     

光遗传技术通过Wnt/β-Catenin通路对新生神经元的影响*

目的:探讨Wnt/β-catenin信号通路光遗传技术在促进新生神经元成熟中的作用。方法:从胎鼠大脑皮层中提取神经干细胞,用携带DCX-ChR2-EGFP基因的慢病毒感染神经干细胞,观察神经干细胞分化为新生神经元后DCX的表达。实验细胞分为3组(n=9):对照组、NSCs+EGFP和NSCs+ChR2组。其中对照组为正常培养的NSCs(NSCs组);NSCs+EGFP组为携带DCX-EGFP基因慢病毒感染神经干细胞组;NSCs+ChR2组为携带DCX-ChR2-EGFP基因慢病毒感染神经干细胞组。病毒感染后48 h后连续3 d行470 nm蓝激光照射,然后检测各组NeuN⁺阳性细胞(成熟神经元标志物)的密度和NeuN⁺/Hoechst比值情况;Western blot检测各组成熟神经元相关蛋白MAP2、NeuN、Neurog2、NeuroD1和GluR2蛋白表达水平和Wnt/β-catenin通道相关蛋白TCF4和β-catenin蛋白的表达水平。用L-型钙通道阻断剂100 μmol/L维拉帕米或50 μg/ml的β-catenin抑制剂Dkk1处理NSCs+ChR2组细胞,然后行Western blot检测各组MAP2、NeuN、Neurog2、NeuroD1和GluR2蛋白表达水平。结果:连续3 d 470 nm蓝激光照射后,NSCs+ChR2组中NeuN⁺阳性细胞密度(成熟细胞)和NeuN⁺/Hoechst明显高于NSCs组和NSCs+EGFP组(P均＜0.05);Western blot检测的MAP2、NeuN、Neurog2、NeuroD1、GluR2蛋白及Wnt/β-catenin通路相关蛋白β-catenin、TCF4表达水平均明显高于NSCs组和NSCs+EGFP组(P均＜0.01);L-型钙通道阻断剂维拉帕米或β-catenin抑制剂Dkk1处理NSCs+ChR2组细胞后MAP2、Neurog2、NeuroD1和GluR2蛋白表达水平明显下降(P均＜ 0.01),NeuN表达水平也下降(P＜0.05)。证明ChR2通道蛋白开放产生阳离子内流促进新生神经元成熟,是通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路实现的。结论:光遗传学方法通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路促进新生神经元成熟。