Connexin-43 hemichannels mediate cyclic ADP-ribose generation and its Ca2+-mobilizing activity by NAD+/cyclic ADP-ribose transport

The ADP-ribosyl cyclase CD38 whose catalytic domain resides in outside of the cell surface produces the second messenger cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) from NAD(+). cADPR increases intracellular Ca(2+) through the intracellular ryanodine receptor/Ca(2+) release channel (RyR). It has been known that intracellular NAD(+) approaches ecto-CD38 via its export by connexin (Cx43) hemichannels, a component of gap junctions. However, it is unclear how cADPR extracellularly generated by ecto-CD38 approaches intracellular RyR although CD38 itself or nucleoside transporter has been proposed to import cADPR. Moreover, it has been unknown what physiological stimulation can trigger Cx43-mediated export of NAD(+). Here we demonstrate that Cx43 hemichannels, but not CD38, import cADPR to increase intracellular calcium through RyR. We also demonstrate that physiological stimulation such as Fcγ receptor (FcγR) ligation induces calcium mobilization through three sequential steps, Cx43-mediated NAD(+) export, CD38-mediated generation of cADPR and Cx43-mediated cADPR import in J774 cells. Protein kinase A (PKA) activation also induced calcium mobilization in the same way as FcγR stimulation. FcγR stimulation-induced calcium mobilization was blocked by PKA inhibition, indicating that PKA is a linker between FcγR stimulation and NAD(+)/cADPR transport. Cx43 knockdown blocked extracellular cADPR import and extracellular cADPR-induced calcium mobilization in J774 cells. Cx43 overexpression in Cx43-negative cells conferred extracellular cADPR-induced calcium mobilization by the mediation of cADPR import. Our data suggest that Cx43 has a dual function exporting NAD(+) and importing cADPR into the cell to activate intracellular calcium mobilization.     

Functional gap junctions accumulate at the immunological synapse and contribute to T cell activation

Gap junction (GJ) mediates intercellular communication through linked hemichannels from each of two adjacent cells. Using human and mouse models, we show that connexin 43 (Cx43), the main GJ protein in the immune system, was recruited to the immunological synapse during T cell priming as both GJs and stand-alone hemichannels. Cx43 accumulation at the synapse was Ag specific and time dependent, and required an intact actin cytoskeleton. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and Cx43-specific inhibitors were used to prove that intercellular communication between T cells and dendritic cells is bidirectional and specifically mediated by Cx43. Moreover, this intercellular cross talk contributed to T cell activation as silencing of Cx43 with an antisense or inhibition of GJ docking impaired intracellular Ca(2+) responses and cytokine release by T cells. These findings identify Cx43 as an important functional component of the immunological synapse and reveal a crucial role for GJs and hemichannels as coordinators of the dendritic cell-T cell signaling machinery that regulates T cell activation.     

Cx43/beta-gal inhibits Cx43 transport in the Golgi apparatus

A connexin construct consisting of bacterial beta-galactosidase fused to the C-terminus of connexin43 (Cx43/beta-gal) was used to examine Cx43 assembly in NIH 3T3 cells. Cx43/beta-gal is retained in a perinuclear compartment and inhibits Cx43 transport to the cell surface. The intracellular connexin pool trapped by Cx43/beta-gal was retained in a compartment that co-localized with a medial Golgi apparatus marker by immunofluorescence microscopy and that was readily disassembled by treatment with brefeldin A. Further analysis by sucrose gradient fractionation showed that Cx43 and Cx43/beta-gal were assembled into a sub-hexameric complex, and that Cx43/beta-gal expression also inhibited Cx43 assembly into hemichannels. While this is consistent with Cx43 hemichannel assembly in the trans Golgi network (TGN), these data also suggest that the dominant negative effect of Cx43/beta-gal on Cx43 trafficking may reflect a putative sub-hexameric assembly intermediate formed in the Golgi apparatus.     

Roles and regulation of lens epithelial cell connexins

The avascular lens of the eye is covered anteriorly by an epithelium containing nucleated, metabolically active cells. This epithelium contains the first lens cells to encounter noxious external stimuli and cells that can develop compensatory or protective responses. Lens epithelial cells express the gap junction proteins, connexin43 (Cx43) and connexin50 (Cx50). Cx43 and Cx50 form gap junction channels and hemichannels with different properties. Although they may form heteromeric hemichannels, Cx43 and Cx50 probably do not form heterotypic channels in the lens. Cx50 channels make their greatest contribution to intercellular communication during the early postnatal period; subsequently, Cx43 becomes the predominant connexin supporting intercellular communication. Although epithelial Cx43 appears dispensable for lens development, Cx50 is critical for epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation. Cx43 and Cx50 hemichannels and gap junction channels are regulated by multiple different agents. Lens epithelial cell connexins contribute to both normal lens physiology and pathology.     

Stoichiometry of transjunctional voltage-gating polarity reversal by a negative charge substitution in the amino terminus of a connexin32 chimera

Gap junctions are intercellular channels formed by the serial, head to head arrangement of two hemichannels. Each hemichannel is an oligomer of six protein subunits, which in vertebrates are encoded by the connexin gene family. All intercellular channels formed by connexins are sensitive to the relative difference in the membrane potential between coupled cells, the transjunctional voltage (Vj), and gate by the separate action of their component hemichannels (Harris, A.L., D.C. Spray, and M.V. Bennett. 1981. J. Gen. Physiol. 77:95-117). We reported previously that the polarity of Vj dependence is opposite for hemichannels formed by two closely related connexins, Cx32 and Cx26, when they are paired to form intercellular channels (Verselis, V.K., C.S. Ginter, and T.A. Bargiello. 1994. Nature. 368:348-351). The opposite gating polarity is due to a difference in the charge of the second amino acid. Negative charge substitutions of the neutral asparagine residue present in wild-type Cx32 (Cx32N2E or Cx32N2D) reverse the gating polarity of Cx32 hemichannels from closure at negative Vj to closure at positive Vj. In this paper, we further examine the mechanism of polarity reversal by determining the gating polarity of a chimeric connexin, in which the first extracellular loop (E1) of Cx32 is replaced with that of Cx43 (Cx43E1). The resulting chimera, Cx32*Cx43E1, forms conductive hemichannels when expressed in single Xenopus oocytes and intercellular channels in pairs of oocytes (Pfahnl, A., X.W. Zhou, R. Werner, and G. Dahl. 1997. Pflügers Arch. 433:733-779). We demonstrate that the polarity of Vj dependence of Cx32*Cx43E1 hemichannels in intercellular pairings is the same as that of wild-type Cx32 hemichannels and is reversed by the N2E substitution. In records of single intercellular channels, Vj dependence is characterized by gating transitions between fully open and subconductance levels. Comparable transitions are observed in Cx32*Cx43E1 conductive hemichannels at negative membrane potentials and the polarity of these transitions is reversed by the N2E substitution. We conclude that the mechanism of Vj dependence of intercellular channels is conserved in conductive hemichannels and term the process Vj gating. Heteromeric conductive hemichannels comprised of Cx32*Cx43E1 and Cx32N2E*Cx43E1 subunits display bipolar Vj gating, closing to substates at both positive and negative membrane potentials. The number of bipolar hemichannels observed in cells expressing mixtures of the two connexin subunits coincides with the number of hemichannels that are expected to contain a single oppositely charged subunit. We conclude that the movement of the voltage sensor in a single connexin subunit is sufficient to initiate Vj gating. We further suggest that Vj gating results from conformational changes in individual connexin subunits rather than by a concerted change in the conformation of all six subunits.     

Cx43/β-Gal Inhibits Cx43 Transport in the Golgi Apparatus

A connexin construct consisting of bacterial β-galactosidase fused to the C-terminus of connexin43 (Cx43/β-gal) was used to examine Cx43 assembly in NIH 3T3 cells. Cx43/β-gal is retained in a perinuclear compartment and inhibits Cx43 transport to the cell surface. The intracellular connexin pool trapped by Cx43/β-gal was retained in a compartment that co-localized with a medial Golgi apparatus marker by immunofluorescence microscopy and that was readily disassembled by treatment with brefeldin A. Further analysis by sucrose gradient fractionation showed that Cx43 and Cx43/β-gal were assembled into a sub-hexameric complex, and that Cx43/β-gal expression also inhibited Cx43 assembly into hemichannels. While this is consistent with Cx43 hemichannel assembly in the trans Golgi network (TGN), these data also suggest that the dominant negative effect of Cx43/β-gal on Cx43 trafficking may reflect a putative sub-hexameric assembly intermediate formed in the Golgi apparatus.     

Cx43/β-Gal Inhibits Cx43 Transport in the Golgi Apparatus

A connexin construct consisting of bacterial β-galactosidase fused to the C-terminus of connexin43 (Cx43/β-gal) was used to examine Cx43 assembly in NIH 3T3 cells. Cx43/β-gal is retained in a perinuclear compartment and inhibits Cx43 transport to the cell surface. The intracellular connexin pool trapped by Cx43/β-gal was retained in a compartment that co-localized with a medial Golgi apparatus marker by immunofluorescence microscopy and that was readily disassembled by treatment with brefeldin A. Further analysis by sucrose gradient fractionation showed that Cx43 and Cx43/β-gal were assembled into a sub-hexameric complex, and that Cx43/β-gal expression also inhibited Cx43 assembly into hemichannels. While this is consistent with Cx43 hemichannel assembly in the trans Golgi network (TGN), these data also suggest that the dominant negative effect of Cx43/β-gal on Cx43 trafficking may reflect a putative sub-hexameric assembly intermediate formed in the Golgi apparatus.     

Green fluorescent protein changes the conductance of connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels reconstituted in planar lipid bilayers

In mammalian tissues, connexin 43 (Cx43) is the most prominent member of the connexin family. In a single lipid bilayer, six connexin subunits assemble into a hemichannel (connexon). Direct communication of apposing cells is realized by two adjacent hemichannels, which can form gap junction channels. Here, we established an expression system in Pichia pastoris to recombinantly produce and purify Cx43 as well as Cx43 fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP). Proteins were isolated from crude cell membrane fractions via affinity chromatography. Cx43 and Cx43-GFP hemichannels were reconstituted in giant unilamellar vesicles as proven by fluorescence microscopy, and their electrophysiological behavior was analyzed on the single channel level by planar patch clamping. Cx43 and Cx43-GFP both showed an ohmic behavior and a voltage-dependent open probability. Cx43 hemichannels exhibited one major mean conductance of 224 ± 26 picosiemens (pS). In addition, a subconductance state at 124 ± 5 pS was identified. In contrast, the analysis of Cx43-GFP single channels revealed 10 distinct conductance states in the range of 15 to 250 pS, with a larger open probability at 0 mV as compared with Cx43, which suggests that intermolecular interactions between the GFP molecules alter the electrophysiology of the protein.     

Intercellular calcium signaling in astrocytes via ATP release through connexin hemichannels.

Astrocytes are capable of widespread intercellular communication via propagated increases in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. We have used patch clamp, dye flux, ATP assay, and Ca(2+) imaging techniques to show that one mechanism for this intercellular Ca(2+) signaling in astrocytes is the release of ATP through connexin channels ("hemichannels") in individual cells. Astrocytes showed low Ca(2+)-activated whole-cell currents consistent with connexin hemichannel currents that were inhibited by the connexin channel inhibitor flufenamic acid (FFA). Astrocytes also showed molecular weight-specific influx and release of dyes, consistent with flux through connexin hemichannels. Transmembrane dye flux evoked by mechanical stimulation was potentiated by low Ca(2+) and was inhibited by FFA and Gd(3+). Mechanical stimulation also evoked release of ATP that was potentiated by low Ca(2+) and inhibited by FFA and Gd(3+). Similar whole-cell currents, transmembrane dye flux, and ATP release were observed in C6 glioma cells expressing connexin43 but were not observed in parent C6 cells. The connexin hemichannel activator quinine evoked ATP release and Ca(2+) signaling in astrocytes and in C6 cells expressing connexin43. The propagation of intercellular Ca(2+) waves in astrocytes was also potentiated by quinine and inhibited by FFA and Gd(3+). Release of ATP through connexin hemichannels represents a novel signaling pathway for intercellular communication in astrocytes and other non-excitable cells.     

A self-restricted CD38-connexin 43 cross-talk affects NAD+ and cyclic ADP-ribose metabolism and regulates intracellular calcium in 3T3 fibroblasts

Connexin 43 (Cx43) hexameric hemichannels, recently demonstrated to mediate NAD(+) transport, functionally interact in the plasma membrane of several cells with the ectoenzyme CD38 that converts NAD(+) to the universal calcium mobilizer cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR). Here we demonstrate that functional uncoupling between CD38 and Cx43 in CD38-transfected 3T3 murine fibroblasts is paralleled by decreased [Ca(2+)](i) levels as a result of reduced intracellular conversion of NAD(+) to cADPR. A sharp inverse correlation emerged between [Ca(2+)](i) levels and NAD(+) transport (measured as influx into cells and as efflux therefrom), both in the CD38(+) cells (high [Ca(2+)](i), low transport) and in the CD38(-) fibroblasts (low [Ca(2+)](i), high transport). These differences were correlated with distinctive extents of Cx43 phosphorylation in the two cell populations, a lower phosphorylation with high NAD(+) transport (CD38(-) cells) and vice versa (CD38(+) cells). Conversion of NAD(+)-permeable Cx43 to the phosphorylated, NAD(+)-impermeable form occurs via Ca(2+)-stimulated protein kinase C (PKC). Thus, a self-regulatory loop emerged in CD38(+) fibroblasts whereby high [Ca(2+)](i) restricts further Ca(2+) mobilization by cADPR via PKC-mediated disruption of the Cx43-CD38 cross-talk. This mechanism may avoid: (i) leakage of NAD(+) from cells; (ii) depletion of intracellular NAD(+) by CD38; (iii) overproduction of intracellular cADPR resulting in potentially cytotoxic [Ca(2+)](i).     

Connexin 43 hemichannels mediate the Ca2+ influx induced by extracellular alkalinization

Although alkaline pH is known to trigger Ca(2+) influx in diverse cells, no pH-sensitive Ca(2+) channel has been identified. Here, we report that extracellular alkalinization induces opening of connexin 43 hemichannels (Cx43 HCs). Increasing extracellular pH from 7.4 to 8.5, in the presence of physiological Ca(2+)/Mg(2+) concentrations, rapidly increased the ethidium uptake rate and open probability of HCs in Cx43 and Cx43EGFP HeLa transfectants (HeLa-Cx3 and HeLa-Cx43EGFP, respectively) but not in parental HeLa cells (HeLa-parental) lacking Cx43 HCs. The increase in ethidium uptake induced by pH 8.5 was not affected by raising the extracellular Ca(2+) concentration from 1.8 to 10 mM but was inhibited by a connexin HC inhibitor (La(3+)). Probenecid, a pannexin HC blocker, had no effect. Extracellular alkalinization increased the intracellular Ca(2+) levels only in cells expressing HCs. The above changes induced by extracellular alkalinization did not change the cellular distribution of Cx43, suggesting that HC activation occurs through a gating mechanism. Experiments on cells expressing a COOH-terminal truncated Cx43 mutant indicated that the effects of alkalinization on intracellular Ca(2+) and ethidium uptake did not depend on the Cx43 C terminus. Moreover, purified dephosphorylated Cx43 HCs reconstituted in liposomes were Ca(2+) permeable, suggesting that Ca(2+) influx through Cx43 HCs could account for the elevation in intracellular Ca(2+) elicited by extracellular alkalinization. These studies identify a membrane pathway for Ca(2+) influx and provide a potential explanation for the activation of cellular events induced by extracellular alkalinization.     

RhoA GTPase Switch Controls Cx43-Hemichannel Activity through the Contractile System

ATP-dependent paracrine signaling, mediated via the release of ATP through plasma membrane-embedded hemichannels of the connexin family, coordinates a synchronized response between neighboring cells. Connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels that are present in the plasma membrane need to be tightly regulated to ensure cell viability. In monolayers of bovine corneal endothelial cells (BCEC),Cx43-mediated ATP release is strongly inhibited when the cells are treated with inflammatory mediators, in particular thrombin and histamine. In this study we investigated the involvement of RhoA activation in the inhibition of hemichannel-mediated ATP release in BCEC. We found that RhoA activation occurs rapidly and transiently upon thrombin treatment of BCEC. The RhoA activity correlated with the onset of actomyosin contractility that is involved in the inhibition of Cx43 hemichannels. RhoA activation and inhibition of Cx43-hemichannel activity were both prevented by pre-treatment of the cells with C3-toxin as well as knock down of RhoA by siRNA. These findings provide evidence that RhoA activation is a key player in thrombin-induced inhibition of Cx43-hemichannel activity. This study demonstrates that RhoA GTPase activity is involved in the acute inhibition of ATP-dependent paracrine signaling, mediated by Cx43 hemichannels, in response to the inflammatory mediator thrombin. Therefore, RhoA appears to be an important molecular switch that controls Cx43 hemichannel openings and hemichannel-mediated ATP-dependent paracrine intercellular communication under (patho)physiological conditions of stress.     

Properties and regulation of gap junctional hemichannels in the plasma membranes of cultured cells

During the assembly of gap junctions, a hemichannel in the plasma membrane of one cell is thought to align and dock with another in an apposed membrane to form a cell-to-cell channel. We report here on the existence and properties of nonjunctional, plasma membrane connexin43 (Cx43) hemichannels. The opening of the hemichannels was demonstrated by the cellular uptake of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein from the culture medium when extracellular calcium levels were reduced. Dye uptake exhibited properties similar to those of gap junction channels. For example, using different dyes, the levels of uptake were correlated with molecular size: 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (approximately 32%), 7- hydroxycoumarin-3-carboxylic acid (approximately 24%), fura-2 (approximately 11%), and fluorescein-dextran (approximately 0.4%). Octanol and heptanol also reduced dye uptake by approximately 50%. Detailed analysis of one clone of Novikoff cells transfected with a Cx43 antisense expression vector revealed a reduction in dye uptake levels according to uptake assays and a corresponding decrease in intercellular dye transfer rates in microinjection experiments. In addition, a more limited decrease in membrane resistance upon reduction of extracellular calcium was detected in electrophysiological studies of antisense transfectants, in contrast to control cells. Studies of dye uptake in HeLa cells also demonstrated a large increase following transfection with Cx43. Together these observations indicate that Cx43 is responsible for the hemichannel function in these cultured cells. Similar dye uptake results were obtained with normal rat kidney (NRK) cells, which express Cx43. Dye uptake can be dramatically inhibited by 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-activated protein kinase C in these cell systems and by a temperature-sensitive tyrosine protein kinase, pp60v-src in LA25-NRK cells. We conclude that Cx43 hemichannels are found in the plasma membrane, where they are regulated by multiple signaling pathways, and likely represent an important stage in gap junction assembly.     

Functioning of cx43 hemichannels demonstrated by single channel properties

It has been suggested that the opening of non-junctional connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels may play a role in cell physiology, but some workers doubt the reality of hemichannel openings. Here we show data on unitary conductance and voltage gating properties demonstrating that Cx43 hemichannels can open. Membrane depolarization > +60 mV induced single hemichannel currents in HeLa cells expressing Cx43 or Cx43 with enhanced green fluorescent protein attached to the carboxy terminal (Cx43-EGFP). The conductance of single hemichannels was approximately 220 pS, about twice that of the cell-cell channels. Cx43 and Cx43-EGFP hemichannels exhibited slow transitions (>5 ms) between closed and fully open states. Cx43 hemichannels also exhibited fast transitions (<1 ms) between the fully open state and a substate of approximately 75 pS. Similar gating was described for their respective cell-cell channels. No comparable single channel activity was detected in the parental (nontransfected cells) or HeLa cells expressing Cx43 fused at the amino terminal with EGFP (EGFP-Cx43). The latter chimera was inserted into the surface and formed plaques, but did not express functional hemichannels or cell-cell channels. These data convincingly demonstrate the opening of Cx43 hemichannels.     

Extracellular-loop peptide antibodies reveal a predominant hemichannel organization of connexins in polarized intestinal cells

Shigella, the causative agent of bacillary dysentery, invades colonic epithelial cells to elicit an intense inflammatory reaction leading to destruction of the mucosa. ATP-dependent paracrine signalling induced by connexin (Cx) hemichannel opening was previously shown to favor Shigella flexneri invasion and dissemination in transfectants of HeLa cells [G. Tran Van Nhieu, C. Clair, R. Bruzzone, M. Mesnil, P. Sansonetti and L. Combettes. (2003). Connexin-dependent intercellular communication increases invasion and dissemination of Shigella in epithelial cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 5, 720-726.]. However, although Cxs have been described in polarized epithelial cells, little is known about their structural organization and the role of hemichannels during S. flexneri invasion. We show here that polarized Caco-2/TC7 cells express significant amounts of Cx26, Cx32 and Cx43, but that unexpectedly, cell-cell coupling assessed by dye-transfer experiments is inefficient. Consistent with a predominant Cx organization in hemichannels, dye loading induced by low calcium was readily observed, with preferential loading at the basolateral side. Antibodies (Abs) against connexin extracellular loop peptides (CELAbs) demonstrated the importance of hemichannel signalling since they inhibited dye uptake at low calcium and at physiological calcium concentrations during S. flexneri invasion. Importantly, CELAbs allowed the visualization of hemichannels at the surface of epithelial cells, as structures distinct from gap intercellular junctions.     

Functioning of Cx43 Hemichannels Demonstrated by Single Channel Properties

It has been suggested that the opening of non-junctional connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels may play a role in cell physiology, but some workers doubt the reality of hemichannel openings. Here we show data on unitary conductance and voltage gating properties demonstrating that Cx43 hemichannels can open. Membrane depolarization > +60 mV induced single hemichannel currents in HeLa cells expressing Cx43 or Cx43 with enhanced green fluorescent protein attached to the carboxy terminal (Cx43-EGFP). The conductance of single hemichannels was ～220 pS, about twice that of the cell-cell channels. Cx43 and Cx43-EGFP hemichannels exhibited slow transitions (>5 ms) between closed and fully open states. Cx43 hemichannels also exhibited fast transitions (<1 ms) between the fully open state and a substate of ～75 pS. Similar gating was described for their respective cell-cell channels. No comparable single channel activity was detected in the parental (nontransfected cells) or HeLa cells expressing Cx43 fused at the amino terminal with EGFP (EGFP-Cx43). The latter chimera was inserted into the surface and formed plaques, but did not express functional hemichannels or cell-cell channels. These data convincingly demonstrate the opening of Cx43 hemichannels.     

Different domains are critical for oligomerization compatibility of different connexins

Oligomerization of connexins is a critical step in gap junction channel formation. Some members of the connexin family can oligomerize with other members and form functional heteromeric hemichannels [e.g. Cx43 (connexin 43) and Cx45], but others are incompatible (e.g. Cx43 and Cx26). To find connexin domains important for oligomerization, we constructed chimaeras between Cx43 and Cx26 and studied their ability to oligomerize with wild-type Cx43, Cx45 or Cx26. HeLa cells co-expressing Cx43, Cx45 or Cx26 and individual chimaeric constructs were analysed for interactions between the chimaeras and the wild-type connexins using cell biological (subcellular localization by immunofluorescence), functional (intercellular diffusion of microinjected Lucifer yellow) and biochemical (sedimentation velocity through sucrose gradients) assays. All of the chimaeras containing the third transmembrane domain of Cx43 interacted with wild-type Cx43 on the basis of co-localization, dominant-negative inhibition of intercellular communication, and altered sedimentation velocity. The same chimaeras also interacted with co-expressed Cx45. In contrast, immunofluorescence and intracellular diffusion of tracer suggested that other domains influenced oligomerization compatibility when chimaeras were co-expressed with Cx26. Taken together, these results suggest that amino acids in the third transmembrane domain are critical for oligomerization with Cx43 and Cx45. However, motifs in different domains may determine oligomerization compatibility in members of different connexin subfamilies.     

Connexin43 Hemichannel-Mediated Regulation of Connexin43

Background

Many signaling molecules and pathways that regulate gap junctions (GJs) protein expression and function are, in fact, also controlled by GJs. We, therefore, speculated an existence of the GJ channel-mediated self-regulation of GJs. Using a cell culture model in which nonjunctional connexin43 (Cx43) hemichannels were activated by cadmium (Cd²⁺), we tested this hypothesis.

Principal Findings

Incubation of Cx43-transfected LLC-PK1 cells with Cd²⁺ led to an increased expression of Cx43. This effect of Cd²⁺ was tightly associated with JNK activation. Inhibition of JNK abolished the elevation of Cx43. Further analysis revealed that the changes of JNK and Cx43 were controlled by GSH. Supplement of a membrane-permeable GSH analogue GSH ethyl ester or GSH precursor N-acetyl-cystein abrogated the effects of Cd²⁺ on JNK activation and Cx43 expression. Indeed, Cd²⁺ induced extracellular release of GSH. Blockade of Cx43 hemichannels with heptanol or Cx43 mimetic peptide Gap26 to prevent the efflux of GSH significantly attenuated the Cx43-elevating effects of Cd²⁺.

Conclusions

Collectively, our results thus indicate that Cd²⁺-induced upregulation of Cx43 is through activation of nonjunctional Cx43 hemichannels. Our findings thus support the existence of a hemichannel-mediated self-regulation of Cx43 and provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of Cx43 expression and function.     

Endogenous hemichannels play a role in the release of ATP from Xenopus oocytes

ATP is an electrically charged molecule that functions both in the supply of energy necessary for cellular activity and as an intercellular signaling molecule. Although controlled ATP secretion occurs via exocytosis of granules and vesicles, in some cells, and under certain conditions, other mechanisms control ATP release. Gap junctions, intercellular channels formed by connexins that link the cytoplasm of two adjacent cells, control the passage of ions and molecules up to 1 kDa. The channel is formed by two moieties called hemichannels, or connexons, and it has been suggested that these may represent an alternative pathway for ATP release. We have investigated the release of ATP through hemichannels from Xenopus oocytes that are formed by Connexin 38 (Cx38), an endogenous, specific type of connexin. These hemichannels generate an inward current that is reversibly activated by calcium-free solution and inhibited by octanol and flufenamic acid. This calcium-sensitive current depends on Cx38 expression: it is decreased in oocytes injected with an antisense oligonucleotide against Cx38 mRNA (ASCx38) and is increased in oocytes overexpressing Cx38. Moreover, the activation of these endogenous connexons also allows transfer of Lucifer Yellow. We have found that the release of ATP is coincident with the opening of hemichannels: it is calcium-sensitive, is inhibited by octanol and flufenamic acid, is inhibited in ASCx38 injected oocytes, and is increased by overexpression of Cx38. Taken together, our results suggest that ATP is released through activated hemichannels in Xenopus oocytes.     

Trafficking Highways to the Intercalated Disc: New Insights Unlocking the Specificity of Connexin 43 Localization

Abstract

With each heartbeat, billions of cardiomyocytes work in concert to propagate the electrical excitation needed to effectively circulate blood. Regulated expression and timely delivery of connexin proteins to form gap junctions at the specialized cell–cell contact region, known as the intercalated disc, is essential to ventricular cardiomyocyte coupling. We focus this review on several regulatory mechanisms that have been recently found to govern the lifecycle of connexin 43 (Cx43), the short-lived and most abundantly expressed connexin in cardiac ventricular muscle. The Cx43 lifecycle begins with gene expression, followed by oligomerization into hexameric channels, and then cytoskeletal-based transport toward the disc region. Once delivered, hemichannels interact with resident disc proteins and are organized to effect intercellular coupling. We highlight recent studies exploring regulation of Cx43 localization to the intercalated disc, with emphasis on alternatively translated Cx43 isoforms and cytoskeletal transport machinery that together regulate Cx43 gap junction coupling between cardiomyocytes.