Geographic variation in the Japanese white-toothed shrew<Emphasis Type="Italic">Crocidura dsinezumi</Emphasis>

I investigated geographic variation in the Japanese white-toothed shrewCrocidura dsinezumi (Temminck, 1842) (Insectivora, Soricidae) from the Japanese Archipelago and the northern part of the Ryukyu Archipelago. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted based on 11 cranial measurements from 14 sampling localities. Overall size variation seemed to follow clinal changes correlated with latitude and longitude of localities, such that northeastern populations were smaller than southwestern ones. The Hokkaido population and the Kuchinoerabujima population were larger than expected based on estimated values, likely due to changes reflecting environmental factors. In contrast, the Tanegashima population was smaller than its estimated value. The northern Ryukyu populations were divergent from the Kyushu population and from each other. Based on patterns of geographic variation, I suggest that all previously described subspecies ofC. dsinezumi are junior synonyms ofC. dsinezumi; and that the Kuchinoerabujima population and the Nakanoshima population likely represent un- described subspecies.     

Natural infections of small mammals with blood parasites on the borderland of boreal and temperate forest zones

Blood parasites of small mammals living in Białowieża Forest (eastern Poland) were investigated between 1996 and 2002. The following haemoparasite species were found:Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) evotomys in bank voleClethrionomys glareolus; T. (H.) microti in root voleMicrotus oeconomus; Babesia microti in root vole;Hepatozoon erhardovae in bank vole andHepatozoon sp. in root vole. Some non-identifiedBartonella species were found in bank vole, root vole, field voleMicrotus agrestis, yellow-necked mouseApodemus flavicollis, common shrewSorex araneus, Eurasian water shrewNeomys fodiens, and Mediterranean water shrewN. anomalus. The prevalence and diversity of blood parasites were lower in shrews than small rodents. Totally, 52.0% of bank voles, 50.0% of root voles, 32.5% of common shrews, and 41.2% of Eurasian water shrews were infected with any of the blood parasites. Mixed infections were seldom observed in bank vole (17.3% of investigated individuals) and root vole (14.7%). No animals were infected with three or four parasites simultaneously. Infection of Białowieża small mammals with haemoparasites seemed to be similar to those described in other temperate forest regions rather than boreal ones. Infection rates of rodent species seem to be higher in their typical habitats: for bank vole it was the highest in mixed forest, whereas for root vole in sedge swamp. The results suggest that Arvicolidae play a greater role than Muridae or Soricidae in maintenance ofBabesia andHepatozoon foci in natural environments of central Europe.     

A taxonomical re-evaluation of the Valais chromosome race of the common shrew<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sorex araneus</Emphasis> (Insectivora: Soricidae)

The common shrewSorex araneus Linnaeus, 1758 is subject to intense chromosomal polymorphism. About 65 chromosome races are presently known. One of these chromosome races (the Valais race) is karyologically, morphologically, biochemically, and genetically clearly distinct from all other chromosome races of the species. Recent studies of hybrid zones between the Valais race and other chromosome races in the Swiss and French Alps add further strong evidence for the specific taxonomic status of the Valais race. Chromosomes and diagnostic protein markers reveal sharp frequency clines and strong heterozygote deficits. In one hybrid zone, the maintenance of the strong genetic differentiation of the hybridizing taxa was confirmed by a study with autosomal microsatellites indicating minimal gene flow. A microsatellite marker on the Y-chromosome showed complete absence of male mediated gene flow suggesting hybrid male sterility. To clarify the taxonomic status of this taxon, additional analyses were conducted. A morphometric analysis of the mandible indicated the Valais race is morphologically as distinct from neighbouring chromosome races ofS. araneus as from other relatedSorex species. In a phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA cytochromeb gene sequences, the Valais race clearly appears as the sister taxon to all other races ofS. araneus. Therefore, the chromosome race Valais ofS. araneus herein is elevated to specific status and the nameSorex antinorii Bonaparte, 1840 is applied.     

Factors affecting the distribution of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sorex samniticus</Emphasis>, an endemic Italian shrew,in an heterogeneous landscape

We studied the factors affecting the distribution of an endemic shrewSorex samniticus Altobello, 1926 in the Province of Siena, central Italy. Distribution data were obtained by examining pellets from 31 barn owlTyto alba sites (roosts) over a period spanning from 1974 to 2005. We constructed a model using logistic regression analysis on presence/absence data. Results show that an increase in forest dominated byQuercus cerris andCastanea sativa led to the local extinction of this species. Results were confirmed through the examination of one box, with 3044 prey items deposited in layers, that documents the expansion of the species in that area following increased logging ofQuercus cerris andCastanea sativa forests. Cessation of logging has again led to the absence of the species from the area. We discuss these results from the perspective of ecological network planning, showing that utilisation of non-detailed maps, such as Corine Land Cover, that do not distinguish between the various kind of broadleaved forests is inadequate to describe the finer grade of habitat selection of this small mammal.     

Cranial circulation of the pen-tailed tree shrewPtilocercus lowii and relationships of Scandentia

The major cranial arteries and veins are described for a 30-mm crown-rump length fetus of the pen-tailed tree shrewPtilocercus lowii, and comparisons are made with cranial vessels reported in the tree shrewTupaia and with the vascular pattern reconstructed for primitive eutherians.Ptilocercus shares a number of derived features of the cranial circulation withTupaia, which, therefore, represent synapomorphies of tree shrews (Tupaiidae, Scandentia). Included are (1) the enclosure of the intratympanic portion of the internal carotid artery in a bony canal that is floored proximally and distally by the entotympanic and by the petrosal in between, (2) the enclosure of the intratympanic portion of the stapedial artery by the petrosal in a canal on the promontorium and within the epitympanic crest beneath the tympanic roof, (3) the absence of an exit for the arteria diploëtica magna, (4) an alisphenoid canal, (5) a maxillary artery that passes medial to the mandibular nerve beneath foramen ovale, and (6) a laryngeopharyngeal artery. Some of these derived features, however, are also found in certain other eutherians (e.g., numbers 2, 3, and 6 in Euprimates) and, therefore, may be used in future studies to assess the higher-level affinities of Scandentia.     

Enzyme polymorphism inCitrullus lanatus andC. colocynthis in Israel and Sinai

Electrophoretic and morphological variation was studied in 13 cultivars ofC. lanatus and 31 accessions ofC. colocynthis from Israel. Twelve enzyme systems were assayed, representing 19 loci. We found 12 commercially grown cultivars to be monomorphic at all loci. OneC. lanatus accession collected from Israel is highly polymorphic and carries alleles ofC. colocynthis; this accession is probably a representative of a locally cultivated land race grown by Bedouins for animal feed. Over a range of 500 km two forms ofC. colocynthis were identified: one which grows along the coastal plains of the Mediterranean and the other in the arid Negev and Sinal deserts. A high level of electrophoretic and morphological divergence was found between plants of the two regions, whereas within the ecotypes little variation was observed.     

金佛山方竹对亮叶水青冈幼树种群数量结构的影响

为探索贵州省宽阔水保护区亮叶水青冈(Fagus lucida)种群的更新维持机制,采用样方法研究金佛山方竹(Chimonobambusa utilis)对亮叶水青冈种群数量结构的影响。结果表明,较高的金佛山方竹密度降低了亮叶水青冈种群数量,亮叶水青冈株数随径级和高度级增加都呈现递减趋势;金佛山方竹密度增加有利于亮叶水青冈小径级向中径级个体的转化,而方竹密度减少则有利于中径级向大径级个体的转化;金佛山方竹密度增大降低了亮叶水青冈种群平均胸径,但增加了平均高度。这表明金佛山方竹能够影响亮叶水青冈个体数量和形态建成,亮叶水青冈通过降低胸径和增加高度来适应竹丛环境。     

Preliminary survey of Cacajao melanocephalus melanocephalus in Southern Venezuela

We conducted a survey of Cacajao melanocephalus melanocephalusin southern Amazonas, Venezuela, to update information on their distribution and to select a site for a longitudinal study. We surveyed along the Rio Negro, Brazo Casiquiare, Rio Pasimoni, and Rio Baria and interviewed local people. We observed C. m. melanocephalusfour times along the Rio Pasimoni (N =2)and the Rio Baria (N =2).Group size ranged from 3 to 20 individuals. They ate immature seeds from heavily armored fruit of the chicletree (Manilkara bidentataor Manilkara zapota)and Mauritia flexuosa.Local people reported hunting primates, particularly C. m. melanocephalus,once per week. Mercury residue from illegal gold mining may be poisoning local ecosystems. Hunting pressures may have eliminated C. m. melanocephalusfrom much of its range in southern Amazonas. Urgent steps must be taken toward the conservation of C. m. melanocephalus irathis region.     

The genusPicris (Asteraceae,Lactuceae) in Tropical Africa

Three species of the genusPicris L. are native in Tropical Africa:P. abyssinica Sch. Bip. (Ethiopia),P. xylopoda Lack, spec. nova (Nigeria, Ethiopia) andP. humilis DC. (Senegal, Mali). There are indications that the two perennial species,P. abyssinica andP. xylopoda, are related to and have evolved from a primitive Central Asiatic stock in a manner parallel to many African species ofCrepis L.P. humilis, on the other hand, is a small annual plant with a high number of derived characters. The introduced species of European origin growing south of the Sahara are briefly mentioned.     

Observations on the life cycle and establishment ofCochylis atricapitana (Lep: Cochylidae), a moth used for biological control ofSenecio jacobaea in Australia

Larvae of the mothCochylis atricapitana (Stephens) are monophagous leaf, crown, stem or bud borers of ragwort,Senecio jacobaea L. (Asteraceae). In the present investigation, aspects of the life cycle ofC. atricapitana were determined. Moths ofC. atricapitana lay an average of 158 eggs/female with as many as 355 eggs being laid by a single female. The majority of eggs are laid individually along the primary and secondary veins on the underside of ragwort leaves. Egg incubation ranges from 4.2 days at 30°C to 14.4 days at 15°C. At a constant 23°C under a 16 hour photoperiod,C. atricapitana takes approximately 40 days to complete a generation. Caterpillars make their way to young, actively growing ragwort shoots or buds, and begin mining into the plant tissue, boring into the leaf, crown, stem or bud.C. atricapitana has five larval instars and enters diapause as a final instar larva. In southern Victoria, moths ofC. atricapitana fly from late September through to the beginning of February. Adults emerge after overwintering towards the end of spring or beginning of summer.C. atricapitana has established at two sites while larvae, or signs of damage have been observed at approximately 52% of release sites.      

Co-occurrence of the cirolanid isopodEurydice nipponica Bruce & Jones and the ghost shrimpCallianasa japonica Ortmann on an intertidal sand flat

On a moderately protected intertidal sand flat in west Kyushu, Japan, most of the population of the cirolanid isopodEurydice nipponica Bruce & Jones (89%–100%) was found in the zones occupied by the thalassinidean ghost shrimpCallianassa japonica Ortmann in July, August and December 1980.C. japonica later extensively expanded its habitat, and in July 1984, when almost the whole sand flat had been densely populated byC. japonica, the range of the distribution ofE. nipponica was the same as that ofC. japonica with a density about 10 times greater than in July 1980. The occurrence ofE. nipponica has previously been recorded from several exposed sandy beaches as well as their adjacent subtidal areas of well oxygenated sands along the coast of Kyushu, but not on more protected shores like the present sand flat. It is suggested thatC. japonica, through its bioturbating activities, produces sediment characteristics approximating those of the exposed sandy beaches which are the preferred habitat ofE. nipponica. It is supposed thatE. nipponica is a facultative commensal ofC. japonica. In a field experiment to excludeC. japonica and to detect its positive influence onE. nipponica, the densities ofE. nipponica were found to be lower in the experimental plots than in the intact plots. Statistically, however, the difference was only weakly significant, and the possible reasons for this are discussed.     

Adaptation of stomatal response ofCamellia rusticana to a heavy snowfall environment: Winter drought and net photosynthesis

The adaptation ofCamellia rusticana, an evergreen broad-leaved shrub found in areas of heavy snowfall in Japan, to heavy snowfall environments, and the mechanisms by which it is damaged in winter above the snow, were investigated. The stomatal response and photosynthetic characteristics ofC. rusticana were compared to those ofCamellia japonica found in areas of light snowfall. In field conditions, the mean net photosynthesis ofC. rusticana at photon flux density (PFD) over 200 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ (Pn(_>200). was 50% larger than that ofC. japonica, but in both light saturated and CO₂ saturated conditions, the O₂ evolution rate (Pc) ofC. rusticana was not different from that ofC. japonica. Mean leaf conductance at PFD over 200 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ (gl(_>200)) was about 100% larger than that ofC. japonica in the field. The Pn(_>200)) was 50% ratio ofC. rusticana was 37% higher than that ofC. japonica which suggests thatC. rusticana's larger Pn(_>200) can be explained by its larger gl(_>200). WhenC. rusticana trees wintering underneath the snow were projected above it, the leaves of these plants showed serious drought within five days in non-freezing conditions. Their Pc and the maximum stomatal conductance decreased by half and did not recover. The leaves ofC. rusticana showed larger gl(_>200) and a less sensitive stomatal response to the decrease of leaf water potential than that ofC. japonica. The stomata characteristics ofC. rusticana caused larger net photosynthesis than that ofC. japonica during the no snow period, and caused the need for snow cover in winter as protector from winter drought.     

Agmatoploidy inCarex laevigata (Cyperaceae). Fusion and fission of chromosomes as the mechanism of cytogenetic evolution in Iberian populations

In this paper cytogenetic studies on 64 specimens from 20 Iberian populations ofCarex laevigata (Cyperaceae) are presented. Chromosome behaviour in meiosis suggests that the different chromosome numbers obtained (ranging from 2n = 69 to 2n = 80) were distributed according to an increasing geographic gradient of chromosome fission along the North South direction. Four relatively stable areas were also delimited according to chromosome numbers displayed by this species, i.e. 2n = c. 72, c. 74, c. 76, and 78. The meiotic behaviour ofCarex ×deserta (C. laevigata ×C. binervis) was also studied.     

Isolation and characterization of three new PGPR and their effects on the growth of Arabidopsis and Datura plants

This study characterizes three bacterial strains isolated from plant rhizospheres and evaluates their performance as plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Pseudomonas plecoglossicida strain Pp20 was isolated from the rhizosphere of a date palm in Bechar (Algerian Sahara), Bacillus spec. strain Bt04 isolated from the rhizosphere of pear in Ghardaia (Algerian Sahara) and Lysinibacillus fusiformis strain Lf89 was isolated from the rhizosphere of tomato in Ain Defla (northern Algeria). Their effects on plant growth and development were analyzed in different in vitro cultures: an Arabidopsis thaliana plate assay and two hydroponic systems for Datura stramonium and Datura tatula. Our results show that all strains significantly improve plant growth of the plant species tested and some strains produce a shift in the C/N ratio in A. thaliana. Inoculation had no effect on alkaloid production per gram leaf dry weight in D. stramonium, but specific plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria interactions may alter the alkaloid composition in the shoot.     

Maximizing survivorship in cold: thermogenic profiles of non-hibernating mammals

Winter-active small mammals residing in seasonal environments employ many different behavioral, anatomical and physiological mechanisms to cope with cold. Herein we review research on survival mechanisms in cold employed by small mammals with emphasis on the families Soricidae, Muridae and Sciuridae. The focus of this review is on research delineating the role of seasonal changes in resting metabolic rate (RMR), nonshivering thermogenesis (NST), body mass, and communal nesting in enhancing winter survivorship of six species of small mammals (masked shrewSorex cinereus, short-tailed shrewBlarina brevicauda, southern red-backed voleClethrionomys gapperi, white-footed mousePeromyscus leucopus, deer mouseP. maniculatus, and southern flying squirrelGlaucomys volans) residing in the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, USA. Each species shows good over-winter survivorship but exhibits a different suite of mechanisms to maximize survival in cold.B. brevicauda, S. cinereus, andG. volans show slight increases in RMR during winter, whereasPeromyscus andC. gapperi exhibit decreased RMR overwinter. All six species experience elevated NST in winter. The comparatively low RMR and NST ofG. volans during winter was attributable to a decreased energy expenditure due to a larger body mass, coupled with communal nesting in cavities of trees that provided insulation from low ambient temperatures. Squirrels nesting singly experienced a longer period of elevated NST in winter and higher mean NST year-round than did squirrels nesting communally. Energy conservation in the form of growth retardation in winter was exhibited byC. gapperi andS. cinereus but not the other species.     

Genetic divergence in lizardfishes of the genusSaurida from southern Japan

Genetic divergence in four taxa of three species ofSaurida, S. undosquamis south (S) and north (N) types,S. wanieso andS. elongata caught from the East China Sea, Sea of Hyuga and Tosa Bay, was studied based on allelic frequencies at 23 genetic loci surveyed electrophoretically. Fixed allele substitution was observed at eight loci between the S and N types ofS. undosquamis and their genetic distance was 0.5582, within a range of differentiation at the species level. The S type ofS. undosquamis was found to inhabit the Sea of Hyuga and off Cape Ashizuri along the Kuroshio Current, in addition to the East China Sea. The low level of genetic variation found for this type was discussed in relation to its restricted habitat at the edge of the continental shelf. These factors, along with some morphological characters, indicate that the two types ofS. undosquamis should be recognized as distinct species.     

Fortpflanzung und Sexualität vonCereus pedunculatus undActinia equina (Anthozoa,Actiniaria)

Sexuality and reproductive behaviour ofCereus pedunculatus (Pennant) and several forms (subspecies) ofActinia equina (L.) from populations collected along the French Atlantic Sea coast and in different habitats along the European Mediterranean coast were studied. At the stage of 96 septaeC. pedunculatus andA. e. atlantica II exhibited mature oocytes which developed parthenogenetically into larvae. The latter appeared simultaneously in the gastrocoele. AdolescentA. e. atlantica II developed very few mature oocytes and larvae. Following a sterile period, oocytes and young individuals of different age groups were present almost throughout the whole year in adult anemones.A. e. mediterranea I was dioecious and oviparous in any habitat observed. Samples of the larviparousA. e. mediterranea II (collected near Banyuls, France) exhibited male gonads exclusively and contained larvae. Spontaneous longitudinal fission was occasionally observed in adultA. e. mediterranea I and adolescentA. e. atlantica II.     

Isozyme analysis of theCerastium alpinum-C. arcticum complex (Caryophyllaceae) supports a splitting ofC. arcticum Lange

As part of a larger investigation of theC. alpinum-C. arcticum complex of arctic and North Atlantic areas, isozyme variation ofC. alpinum, C. arcticum, and related taxa was analysed. A total of 124 multilocus phenotypes was divided into more or less distinct groups by numerical analyses. Most groups correspond well to previously recognized taxa. However, what has traditionally been considered asC. arcticum was divided into two distinct groups, consisting of northern (Svalbard, Greenland) and more southern (Norway, Iceland) populations, respectively. The division ofC. arcticum into two taxa is also supported by other kinds of data and the two taxa probably deserve species rank. Serpentine plants from Shetland had multilocus phenotypes similar to those ofC. arcticum from Iceland and should be included in the southern taxon.     

Larval and adult morphology ofCamallanus anabantis Pearse, 1933 andC. kulasirii (Yeh, 1960) (Nematoda: Camallanidae) from freshwater fishes,with notes on the validity of some related forms

Larvae and adults ofCamallanus anabantis andC. kulasirii, recovered from the West Bengali freshwater fishes,Anabas testudineus andOphicephalus punctatus, respectively, are described on the basis of detailed morphological studies under the light microscope. Larval forms collected fromA. testudineus are deemed to be of the third and fourth stages when compared with those from experimental studies of the life cycle ofC. anabantis. Moreover, the present fourth stage female larvae are similar to the females ofC. pearsei, both morphologically and metrically.C. pearsei is, therefore, believed to represent the fourth stage female larvae ofC. anabantis. Similarly, adult males and females recovered fromO. punctatus closely resembleC. kulasirii andC. fernandoi, respectively. The larval forms from this host are fourth stage and can be distinguished as males and females, but both possess a buccal capsule bearing beaded longitudinal ridges similar to that of adult males. The late fourth stage (just prior to the final moult) female larva is, however, found to possess a buccal capsule transitional between that of the adult male and female and also betweenC. kulasirii andC. fernandoi. C. fernandoi is, therefore, presumed to represent the females ofC. kulasirii. However,C. pearsei andC. fernandoi are regarded, for the present, asspecies inquirendae.     

The effect of the supernatants obtained fromSporothrix schenkii andCandida albicans culture on the generation of reactive oxygen species by polymorphonuclear leukocytes

The effect of the supernatants obtained from the liquid culture medium ofSporothrix schenkii andCandida albicans on the generation of superoxide anion (O ₂ ^– and hydroxyl radicals OH_., the elements of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and chemilimunescence (CL), a measure of several ROS, by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) was examined. In our study, it was shown that the supernatant ofS. schenkii increased all types of ROS generation examined and CL, while that ofC. albicans increased OH_. generation and CL. The effect of the supernatants ofS. schenkii on OH_. generation and CL and that ofC. albicans on CL were most remarkable when the supernatant obtained 8 weeks after the inoculation was used. The supernatant ofS. schenkii was shown to be a much more potent stimulant than the supernatant ofC. albicans. This ROS-stimulating effect of the supernatant ofS. schenkii was heat stable but not dialyzable. These findings suggest the possible role of ROS produced by infiltrated PMNs in the inflammatory skin lesions induced byS. schenkii.