Y chromosomal evidence for the origins of oceanic-speaking peoples.

A number of alternative hypotheses seek to explain the origins of the three groups of Pacific populations-Melanesians, Micronesians, and Polynesians-who speak languages belonging to the Oceanic subfamily of Austronesian languages. To test these various hypotheses at the genetic level, we assayed diversity within the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome, which contains within it a relatively simple record of the human past and represents the most informative haplotypic system in the human genome. High-resolution haplotypes combining binary, microsatellite, and minisatellite markers were generated for 390 Y chromosomes from 17 Austronesian-speaking populations in southeast Asia and the Pacific. Nineteen paternal lineages were defined and a Bayesian analysis of coalescent simulations was performed upon the microsatellite diversity within lineages to provide a temporal aspect to their geographical distribution. The ages and distributions of these lineages provide little support for the dominant archeo-linguistic model of the origins of Oceanic populations that suggests that these peoples represent the Eastern fringe of an agriculturally driven expansion initiated in southeast China and Taiwan. Rather, most Micronesian and Polynesian Y chromosomes appear to originate from different source populations within Melanesia and Eastern Indonesia. The Polynesian outlier, Kapingamarangi, is demonstrated to be an admixed Micronesian/Polynesian population. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that a geographical rather than linguistic classification of Oceanic populations best accounts for their extant Y chromosomal diversity.     

The Origin of Amerindians and the Peopling of the Americas According to HLA Genes: Admixture with Asian and Pacific People

The classical three-waves theory of American peopling through Beringia was based on a mixed anthropological and linguistic methodology. The use of mtDNA, Y chromosome and other DNA markers offers different results according to the different markers and methodologies chosen by different authors. At present, the peopling of Americas remains uncertain, regarding: time of population, number of peopling waves and place of peopling entrance among other related issues. In the present review, we have gathered most available HLA data already obtained about First Native American populations, which raise some doubts about the classical three waves of American peopling hypothesis. In summary, our conclusions are: 1) North West Canadian Athabaskans have had gene flow with: a) close neighboring populations, b) Amerindians, c) Pacific Islanders including East Australians and d) Siberians; 2) Beringia was probably not the only entrance of people to America: Pacific Ocean boat trips may have contributed to the HLA genetic American profile (or the opposite could also be true); 3) Amerindians entrance to America may have been different to that of Athabaskans and Eskimos and Amerindians may have been in their lands long before Athabaskans and Eskimos because they present and altogether different set of HLA-DRB1 allele frequencies; 4) Amerindians show very few "particular alleles", almost all are shared with other Amerindians, Athabaskans and Pacific Islanders, including East Australians and Siberians; 5) Our results do not support the three waves model of American peopling, but another model where the people entrance is not only Beringia, but also Pacific Coast. Reverse migration (America to Asia) is not discarded and different movements of people in either direction in different times are supported by the Athabaskan population admixture with Asian-Pacific population and with Amerindians, 6) HLA variability is more common than allele veriability in Amerindians. Finally, it is shown that gene genealogy analises should be completed with allele frequency analyses in population relatednes and migrations studies.     

The peopling of New Guinea: evidence from class I human leukocyte antigen.

This study utilizes newly developed direct DNA typing methods for human leukocyte antigens (HLA) to provide new information about the peopling of New Guinea. The complete polymorphism of eight Melanesian populations was examined. The groups included were highlanders, northern and southern highlands fringe populations, a Sepik population, northern and southern coastal New Guinea populations, and populations from the Bismarck Archipelago and New Caledonia. The study concluded that, based on HLA and other evidence. Melanesians are likely to have evolved largely from the same ancestral stock as Aboriginal Australians but to have since differentiated. Highlanders are likely to be descendants of earlier migrations who have been isolated for a long period of time. Northern highlands fringe and Sepik populations are likely to share a closer common ancestry but to have differentiated due to long term isolation and the relative proximity to the coast of the Sepik. Southern fringe populations are likely to have a different origin, possibly from the Gulf region, although there may be some admixture with neighboring groups. Coastal populations have a wider range of polymorphisms because of the genetic trail left by later population movement along the coast from Asia that did not reach Australia or remote Oceania. Other polymorphisms found in these populations may have been introduced by the movement of Austronesian-speaking and other more recent groups of people into the Pacific, because they share many polymorphisms with contemporary southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Micronesians that are not found in highlanders or Aboriginal Australians. There is evidence suggestive of later migration to Melanesia from Polynesia and Micronesia.     

Evolutionary history of the COII/tRNALys intergenic 9 base pair deletion in human mitochondrial DNAs from the Pacific

Length changes in human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are potentially useful markers for inferring the evolutionary history of populations. One such length change is a nine base pair (9-bp) deletion that is located in the intergenic region between the COII gene and the Lysine tRNA gene (COII/tRNALys intergenic region). This deletion has been used as a genetic marker to trace descent from peoples of East Asian origin. A geographic cline of the deletion frequency across modern Pacific Islander populations suggests that the deletion may be useful for tracing prehistoric Polynesian origins and affinities. Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation within two variable segments of the control region (CR) permits a number of inferences regarding the evolutionary history of the 9-bp deletion that cannot be determined from frequency data alone. We obtained CR sequences from 74 mtDNAs with the 9-bp deletion from Indonesia, coastal Papua New Guinea (PNG), and American Samoa. Phylogenetic and pairwise distribution analysis of these CR sequences pooled with previously published CR sequences reveals that the deletion arose independently in Africa and Asia and suggests possible multiple origins of the deletion in Asia. A clinal increase of the frequency of the 9-bp deletion across the three Pacific populations is associated with a decrease in CR sequence diversity, consistent with founder events. Furthermore, analysis of pairwise difference distributions indicates an expansion time of proto-Polynesians that began 5,500 yr ago from Southeast Asia. These results are consistent with the express train model of Polynesian origins.      

Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes

BACKGROUND: Two competing hypotheses for the origins of Polynesians are the 'express-train' model, which supposes a recent and rapid expansion of Polynesian ancestors from Asia/Taiwan via coastal and island Melanesia, and the 'entangled-bank' model, which supposes a long history of cultural and genetic interactions among Southeast Asians, Melanesians and Polynesians. Most genetic data, especially analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation, support the express-train model, as does linguistic and archaeological evidence. Here, we used Y-chromosome polymorphisms to investigate the origins of Polynesians. RESULTS: We analysed eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and seven short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome in 28 Cook Islanders from Polynesia and 583 males from 17 Melanesian, Asian and Australian populations. We found that all Polynesians belong to just three Y-chromosome haplotypes, as defined by unique event polymorphisms. The major Y haplotype in Polynesians (82% frequency) was restricted to Melanesia and eastern Indonesia and most probably arose in Melanesia. Coalescence analysis of associated Y-STR haplotypes showed evidence of a population expansion in Polynesians, beginning about 2,200 years ago. The other two Polynesian Y haplotypes were widespread in Asia but were also found in Melanesia. CONCLUSIONS: All Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia, although some of these Y-chromosome types originated in Asia. Together with other genetic and cultural evidence, we propose a new model of Polynesian origins that we call the 'slow-boat' model: Polynesian ancestors did originate from Asia/Taiwan but did not move rapidly through Melanesia; rather, they interacted with and mixed extensively with Melanesians, leaving behind their genes and incorporating many Melanesian genes before colonising the Pacific.     

Independent origins of cultivated coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in the old world tropics

As a portable source of food, water, fuel, and construction materials, the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) played a fundamental role in human migrations and the development of civilization across the humid tropics. Here we investigated the coconut's domestication history and its population genetic structure as it relates to human dispersal patterns. A sample of 1,322 coconut accessions, representing the geographical and phenotypic diversity of the species, was examined using ten microsatellite loci. Bayesian analyses reveal two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations that correspond to the Pacific and Indo-Atlantic oceanic basins. This pattern suggests independent origins of coconut cultivation in these two world regions, with persistent population structure on a global scale despite long-term human cultivation and dispersal. Pacific coconuts show additional genetic substructure corresponding to phenotypic and geographical subgroups; moreover, the traits that are most clearly associated with selection under human cultivation (dwarf habit, self-pollination, and "niu vai" fruit morphology) arose only in the Pacific. Coconuts that show evidence of genetic admixture between the Pacific and Indo-Atlantic groups occur primarily in the southwestern Indian Ocean. This pattern is consistent with human introductions of Pacific coconuts along the ancient Austronesian trade route connecting Madagascar to Southeast Asia. Admixture in coastal east Africa may also reflect later historic Arab trading along the Indian Ocean coastline. We propose two geographical origins of coconut cultivation: island Southeast Asia and southern margins of the Indian subcontinent.     

The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages

Linguistic and archaeological evidence about the origins of the Malagasy, the indigenous peoples of Madagascar, points to mixed African and Indonesian ancestry. By contrast, genetic evidence about the origins of the Malagasy has hitherto remained partial and imprecise. We defined 26 Y-chromosomal lineages by typing 44 Y-chromosomal polymorphisms in 362 males from four different ethnic groups from Madagascar and 10 potential ancestral populations in Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific. We also compared mitochondrial sequence diversity in the Malagasy with a manually curated database of 19,371 hypervariable segment I sequences, incorporating both published and unpublished data. We could attribute every maternal and paternal lineage found in the Malagasy to a likely geographic origin. Here, we demonstrate approximately equal African and Indonesian contributions to both paternal and maternal Malagasy lineages. The most likely origin of the Asia-derived paternal lineages found in the Malagasy is Borneo. This agrees strikingly with the linguistic evidence that the languages spoken around the Barito River in southern Borneo are the closest extant relatives of Malagasy languages. As a result of their equally balanced admixed ancestry, the Malagasy may represent an ideal population in which to identify loci underlying complex traits of both anthropological and medical interest.     

Signatures of invasion: using an integrative approach to infer the spread of melon fly, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zeugodacus cucurbitae</Emphasis> (Diptera: Tephritidae), across Southeast Asia and the West Pacific

Invasion into new areas by already widespread pest organisms often occurs through non-obvious routes, with the origins of such invasions difficult to determine. Understanding population structure using multiple datatypes can help untangle past dispersal events and reveal putative contemporary invasion pathways. The tephritid fruit fly, Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett), is a serious pest of cucurbits and other commercial crops and is considered native to the Indo-Oriental region, but is invasive in both Africa and the Pacific. Here, we combine molecular (microsatellites and COI) and morphological (male genetalia length and wing shape geometric morphometrics) data within an integrative taxonomic framework to test hypotheses concerning levels of Z. cucurbitae population variation observed in Southeast Asia (native range, 10 sites, ~200 individuals) versus the West Pacific (invasive range, 4 sites, ~80 individuals), and whether single or multiple introductions of Z. cucurbitae have occurred into the West Pacific. We also use this case to explicitly test if using an integrative approach provides more information about hypothesized invasion pathways than either genetic or morphological approaches would do alone. All datasets support Z. cucurbitae as being more variable in Southeast Asia than the West Pacific, and within these regions populations appear to be structured geographically. In particular, mainland and Sundaic Southeast Asian locations formed separate clusters, and New Guinea and Solomon Islands were not closely related to Guam and Hawaii. Evidence supports a separate single origin for New Guinea from the Melanesian arc, the Solomon Islands from Malaysia/Singapore, and Guam from mainland Asia, but multiple introductions into Hawaii from mainland Asia. Taken together, we argue that there is great value in integrating evidence from multiple sources as it can provide finer resolution of population relationships than any single data source alone.     

The genetic structure of Pacific Islanders

Human genetic diversity in the Pacific has not been adequately sampled, particularly in Melanesia. As a result, population relationships there have been open to debate. A genome scan of autosomal markers (687 microsatellites and 203 insertions/deletions) on 952 individuals from 41 Pacific populations now provides the basis for understanding the remarkable nature of Melanesian variation, and for a more accurate comparison of these Pacific populations with previously studied groups from other regions. It also shows how textured human population variation can be in particular circumstances. Genetic diversity within individual Pacific populations is shown to be very low, while differentiation among Melanesian groups is high. Melanesian differentiation varies not only between islands, but also by island size and topographical complexity. The greatest distinctions are among the isolated groups in large island interiors, which are also the most internally homogeneous. The pattern loosely tracks language distinctions. Papuan-speaking groups are the most differentiated, and Austronesian or Oceanic-speaking groups, which tend to live along the coastlines, are more intermixed. A small “Austronesian” genetic signature (always <20%) was detected in less than half the Melanesian groups that speak Austronesian languages, and is entirely lacking in Papuan-speaking groups. Although the Polynesians are also distinctive, they tend to cluster with Micronesians, Taiwan Aborigines, and East Asians, and not Melanesians. These findings contribute to a resolution to the debates over Polynesian origins and their past interactions with Melanesians. With regard to genetics, the earlier studies had heavily relied on the evidence from single locus mitochondrial DNA or Y chromosome variation. Neither of these provided an unequivocal signal of phylogenetic relations or population intermixture proportions in the Pacific. Our analysis indicates the ancestors of Polynesians moved through Melanesia relatively rapidly and only intermixed to a very modest degree with the indigenous populations there.     

Different population histories of the Mundari- and Mon-Khmer-speaking Austro-Asiatic tribes inferred from the mtDNA 9-bp deletion/insertion polymorphism in Indian populations

Length variation in the human mtDNA intergenic region between the cytochrome oxidase II (COII) and tRNA lysine (tRNA^lys) genes has been widely studied in world populations. Specifically, Austronesian populations of the Pacific and Austro-Asiatic populations of southeast Asia most frequently carry the 9-bp deletion in that region implying their shared common ancestry in haplogroup B. Furthermore, multiple independent origins of the 9-bp deletion at the background of other mtDNA haplogroups has been shown in populations of Africa, Europe, Australia, and India. We have analyzed 3293 Indian individuals belonging to 58 populations, representing different caste, tribal, and religious groups, for the length variation in the 9-bp motif. The 9-bp deletion (one copy) and insertion (three copies) alleles were observed in 2.51% (2.15% deletion and 0.36% insertion) of the individuals. The maximum frequency of the deletion (45.8%) was observed in the Nicobarese in association with the haplogroup B5a D-loop motif that is common throughout southeast Asia. The low polymorphism in the D-loop sequence of the Nicobarese B5a samples suggests their recent origin and a founder effect, probably involving migration from southeast Asia. Interestingly, none of the 302 (except one Munda sample, which has 9-bp insertion) from Mundari-speaking Austro-Asiatic populations from the Indian mainland showed the length polymorphism of the 9-bp motif, pointing either to their independent origin from the Mon-Khmeric-speaking Nicobarese or to an extensive admixture with neighboring Indo-European-speaking populations. Consistent with previous reports, the Indo-European and Dravidic populations of India showed low frequency of the 9-bp deletion/insertion. More than 18 independent origins of the deletion or insertion mutation could be inferred in the phylogenetic analysis of the D-loop sequences.     

Influence of cranial deformation on facial morphology among prehistoric South Central Andean populations

Calculating biodistances among South American populations using cranial measurements is often hindered, as many available skeletal collections exhibit deformation. Acknowledging vault modifications, researchers have sought measurements in other regions which are unaffected by deformation. In the 1970s, a set of 10 "relatively" unaffected facial measurements was identified in Argentinean crania that later became the basis of numerous South American biodistance studies. These measurements include: minimum frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, orbit height, orbit breadth, palate breath, palate length, upper facial height, basion-prosthion length, nasal height, and nasal breadth. Palate length was excluded from the present analysis due to considerable measurement error. The suitability of these measurements in populations other than Argentineans has not been rigorously tested. Using a sample of 350 prehistoric crania from the Museo Arqueológico San Miguel de Azapa (MASMA, Arica, Chile), this project tested the hypothesis that these measurements are unaffected by either annular or tabular deformation. Results obtained from MANOVA analysis indicate this hypothesis cannot be fully supported. Among males, only 3 of the 9 measurements are unaffected by either form of deformation (palate breadth, basion-prosthion length, and nasal breadth), while analysis of females indicates that 4 of the 9 measurements remain unaltered (minimum frontal breadth, orbit breadth, basion-prosthion length, and nasal breadth). Additionally, analogous to the vault, facial measurements display patterns consistent with the deformation applied. Two implications can be drawn from this research: 1) previous studies using these measurements must be interpreted cautiously, and 2) researchers using these measurements must explicitly test their suitability in each population.     

Patterns of genetic diversity of the cryptogenic red alga Polysiphonia morrowii (Ceramiales,Rhodophyta) suggest multiple origins of the Atlantic populations

The red alga Polysiphonia morrowii, native to the North Pacific (Northeast Asia), has recently been reported worldwide. To determine the origin of the French and Argentine populations of this introduced species, we compared samples from these two areas with samples collected in Korea and at Hakodate, Japan, the type locality of the species. Combined analyses of chloroplastic (rbcL) and mitochondrial (cox1) DNA revealed that the French and Argentine populations are closely related and differ substantially from the Korean and Japanese populations. The genetic structure of P. morrowii populations from South Atlantic and North Atlantic, which showed high haplotype diversity compared with populations from the North Pacific, suggested the occurrence of multiple introduction events from areas outside of the so‐called native regions. Although similar, the French and Argentine populations are not genetically identical. Thus, the genetic structure of these two introduced areas may have been modified by cryptic and recurrent introduction events directly from Asia or from other introduced areas that act as introduction relays. In addition, the large number of private cytoplasmic types identified in the two introduced regions strongly suggests that local populations of P. morrowii existed before the recent detection of these invasions. Our results suggest that the most likely scenario is that the source population(s) of the French and Argentine populations was not located only in the North Pacific and/or that P. morrowii is a cryptogenic species.     

Plasmodium vivax Diversity and Population Structure across Four Continents

Plasmodium vivax is the geographically most widespread human malaria parasite. To analyze patterns of microsatellite diversity and population structure across countries of different transmission intensity, genotyping data from 11 microsatellite markers was either generated or compiled from 841 isolates from four continents collected in 1999–2008. Diversity was highest in South-East Asia (mean allelic richness 10.0–12.8), intermediate in the South Pacific (8.1–9.9) Madagascar and Sudan (7.9–8.4), and lowest in South America and Central Asia (5.5–7.2). A reduced panel of only 3 markers was sufficient to identify approx. 90% of all haplotypes in South Pacific, African and SE-Asian populations, but only 60–80% in Latin American populations, suggesting that typing of 2–6 markers, depending on the level of endemicity, is sufficient for epidemiological studies. Clustering analysis showed distinct clusters in Peru and Brazil, but little sub-structuring was observed within Africa, SE-Asia or the South Pacific. Isolates from Uzbekistan were exceptional, as a near-clonal parasite population was observed that was clearly separated from all other populations (F _ST>0.2). Outside Central Asia F _ST values were highest (0.11–0.16) between South American and all other populations, and lowest (0.04–0.07) between populations from South-East Asia and the South Pacific. These comparisons between P. vivax populations from four continents indicated that not only transmission intensity, but also geographical isolation affect diversity and population structure. However, the high effective population size results in slow changes of these parameters. This persistency must be taken into account when assessing the impact of control programs on the genetic structure of parasite populations.     

Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia

To investigate the origins and relationships of Australian and Melanesian populations, 611 males from 18 populations from Australia, Melanesia, and eastern/southeastern Asia were typed for eight single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci and seven short tandem-repeat loci on the Y chromosome. A unique haplotype, DYS390.1del/RPS4Y711T, was found at a frequency of 53%-69% in Australian populations, whereas the major haplotypes found in Melanesian populations (M4G/M5T/M9G and DYS390.3del/RPS4Y711T) are absent from the Australian populations. The Y-chromosome data thus indicate independent histories for Australians and Melanesians, a finding that is in agreement with evidence from mtDNA but that contradicts some analyses of autosomal loci, which show a close relationship between Australian and Melanesian (specifically, highland Papua New Guinean) populations. Since the Australian and New Guinean landmasses were connected when first colonized by humans > or =50,000 years ago but separated some 8,000 years ago, a possible way to reconcile all the genetic data is to infer that the Y-chromosome and mtDNA results reflect the past 8,000 years of independent history for Australia and New Guinea, whereas the autosomal loci reflect the long preceding period of common origin and shared history. Two Y-chromosome haplotypes (M119C/M9G and M122C/M9G) that originated in eastern/southeastern Asia are present in coastal and island Melanesia but are rare or absent in both Australia and highland Papua New Guinea. This distribution, along with demographic analyses indicating that population expansions for both haplotypes began approximately 4,000-6,000 years ago, suggests that these haplotypes were brought to Melanesia by the Austronesian expansion. Most of the populations in this study were previously typed for mtDNA SNPs; population differentiation is greater for the Y chromosome than for mtDNA and is significantly correlated with geographic distance, a finding in agreement with results of similar analyses of European populations.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in Nicobarese Islanders.

The aboriginal populations living in the Nicobar Islands are hypothesized to be descendants of people who were part of early human dispersals into Southeast Asia. However, analyses of ethnographic histories, languages, morphometric data, and protein polymorphisms have not yet resolved which worldwide populations are most closely related to the Nicobarese. Thus, to explore the origins and affinities of the Nicobar Islanders, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) hypervariable region 1 sequence data from 33 Nicobarese Islanders and compared their mtDNA haplotypes to those of neighboring East Asians, mainland and island Southeast Asians, Indians, Australian aborigines, Pacific Islanders, and Africans. Unique Nicobarese mtDNA haplotypes, including five Nicobarese mtDNA haplotypes linked to the COII/tRNA(Lys) 9-bp deletion, are most closely related to mtDNA haplotypes from mainland Southeast Asian Mon-Kmer-speaking populations (e.g., Cambodians). Thus, the dispersal of southern Chinese into mainland Southeast Asia may have included a westward expansion and colonization of the islands of the Andaman Sea.     

Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania

It has recently been shown that ancestors of New Guineans and Bougainville Islanders have inherited a proportion of their ancestry from Denisovans, an archaic hominin group from Siberia. However, only a sparse sampling of populations from Southeast Asia and Oceania were analyzed. Here, we quantify Denisova admixture in 33 additional populations from Asia and Oceania. Aboriginal Australians, Near Oceanians, Polynesians, Fijians, east Indonesians, and Mamanwa (a "Negrito" group from the Philippines) have all inherited genetic material from Denisovans, but mainland East Asians, western Indonesians, Jehai (a Negrito group from Malaysia), and Onge (a Negrito group from the Andaman Islands) have not. These results indicate that Denisova gene flow occurred into the common ancestors of New Guineans, Australians, and Mamanwa but not into the ancestors of the Jehai and Onge and suggest that relatives of present-day East Asians were not in Southeast Asia when the Denisova gene flow occurred. Our finding that descendants of the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia do not all harbor Denisova admixture is inconsistent with a history in which the Denisova interbreeding occurred in mainland Asia and then spread over Southeast Asia, leading to all its earliest modern human inhabitants. Instead, the data can be most parsimoniously explained if the Denisova gene flow occurred in Southeast Asia itself. Thus, archaic Denisovans must have lived over an extraordinarily broad geographic and ecological range, from Siberia to tropical Asia.     

Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA studies on the population structure of the Christmas Island community

Christmas Island is a remote Australian territory located close to the main Indonesian island of Java. Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers were used to investigate the genetic structure of the population, which comprises communities of mixed ethnic origin. Analysis of 12 Y-chromosome biallelic polymorphisms revealed a high level of gene diversity and haplotype frequencies that were consistent with source populations in southern China and Southeast Asia. mtDNA hypervariable segment I (HVS-I) sequences displayed high levels of haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity that were comparable to various Asian populations. Genetic distances revealed extremely low mtDNA differentiation among Christmas Islanders and Asian populations. This was supported by the relatively high proportion of sequence types shared among these populations. The most common mtDNA haplogroups were M* and B, followed by D and F, which are prevalent in East/Southeast Asia. Christmas Islanders of European descent were characterized by the Eurasian haplogroup R*, and a limited degree of admixture was observed. In general, analysis of the genetic data indicated population affinities to southern Chinese (in particular from the Yunnan Province) and Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, and Cambodia), which was consistent with historical records of settlement. The combined use of these different marker systems provides a useful and appropriate model for the study of contemporary populations derived from different ethnic origins.     

Population prehistory of East Asia and the pacific as viewed from craniofacial morphology: The basic populations in East Asia,VII

Distance analyses were applied to 11 craniofacial measurements recorded in samples from East and Southeast Asia, Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia for the purpose of assessing the biological affinities and possible origins of these populations. A clear separation between Australomelanesians and other populations from East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific is evident. The craniofacial variations suggest that the generalized Asian populations (Negritos, Dayaks, Lesser Sunda Islands, etc.) represent at least part of the morphological background of not only the majority of present Southeast Asians, but also the Neolithic Jomon people and their lineage in Japan, Polynesians, and western Micronesians. The original craniofacial features of Southeast Asians may have occurred as the result of convergent microevolution due to similar environmental conditions such as tropical rain forest. This supports the local-evolution hypothesis for modern Southeast Asian craniofacial features. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The genetic origins of the Andaman Islanders

Mitochondrial sequences were retrieved from museum specimens of the enigmatic Andaman Islanders to analyze their evolutionary history. D-loop and protein-coding data reveal that phenotypic similarities with African pygmoid groups are convergent. Genetic and epigenetic data are interpreted as favoring the long-term isolation of the Andamanese, extensive population substructure, and/or two temporally distinct settlements. An early colonization featured populations bearing mtDNA lineage M2, and this lineage is hypothesized to represent the phylogenetic signal of an early southern movement of humans through Asia. The results demonstrate that Victorian anthropological collections can be used to study extinct, or seriously admixed populations, to provide new data about early human origins.